Core Idea
- Difficulty
- Hard
- Read it if
- You are interested in the foundational texts of Western theology and political thought, want to understand the early Christian worldview, or are grappling with the relationship between faith and worldly power.
- Skip it if
- You are looking for a light, quick read, or have no interest in dense theological and historical arguments.
Key Takeaways from City of God
Two Cities, Two Loves
Humanity is divided into two allegorical cities, defined by their ultimate loves.
Augustine describes two main parts of human life: the City of God and the Earthly City. These are not real places but represent two different groups, each defined by its main love. The Earthly City, including all people not trying for God's grace, is driven by 'love of self' (amor sui). This self-love, when taken to its extreme, causes pride, unfairness, and ignoring God's will. Its search for earthly peace, though sometimes good, is temporary and based on selfish desires. The City of God, made of those chosen for salvation and united by faith, is moved by 'love of God' (amor Dei), even to the point of giving up self. This divine love creates humility, justice, and a desire for lasting peace. Understanding this difference helps to interpret history, human nature, and political systems through Augustine's view.
“Accordingly, two cities have been formed by two loves: the earthly by the love of self, even to the contempt of God; the heavenly by the love of God, even to the contempt of self.”
In the book: Augustine dedicates significant portions of Books XIV and XV to elaborating on the origins and characteristics of these two cities, tracing their lineage from Cain and Abel, respectively, and defining them by their contrasting 'loves.'
Try this: Reflect on your own motivations and the collective aims of your community or nation. Are they primarily driven by self-interest and temporal gain, or by a transcendent purpose and a love for something beyond oneself? This framework encourages a critical evaluation of personal and societal values.
Related ideas: amor-sui, amor-dei, dualism, original-sin
The Problem of Evil
Evil is not a substance but a privation of good, a corruption of God's perfect creation.
One of Augustine's most lasting ideas is his explanation for evil in a world made by a good, powerful God. He rejects the Manichaean idea that evil is a separate, opposing force or thing. Instead, Augustine says evil is a 'lack of good' (privatio boni) — an absence or damage of what God first made good. Just as darkness is the absence of light, evil is the absence of goodness in a being that should have it. God made everything good; evil comes from rational beings (angels and humans) misusing free will when they choose lesser good things over the best Good. This view removes God from direct blame for evil while still recognizing its wide presence in the fallen world.
“For what is that which we call evil but the absence of good?”
In the book: Augustine tackles the problem of evil extensively in Book XI, particularly in response to the Manichaean dualism he once adhered to. He argues that even seemingly evil things, when viewed in the context of the whole creation, can serve a purpose in the divine order, much like shadows in a painting.
Try this: When confronted with suffering or injustice, instead of questioning God's existence or benevolence, consider how human choices and the absence of virtuous action contribute to the 'evil' present. This encourages a focus on restoring good and rectifying privations, rather than battling an abstract force.
Related ideas: theodicy, privatio-boni, free-will, manichaeism
Original Sin and its Legacy
Adam's sin corrupted human nature, making all subsequent generations prone to sin and requiring divine grace.
Augustine's idea of Original Sin greatly shaped Western theology and views of human nature. He says that Adam and Eve's disobedience in Eden was not just one act but a terrible fall that damaged human nature itself. This 'original sin' is passed down to all future generations, not as personal blame for Adam's act, but as a birth defect — a damaged will, disordered desire, and an inability to perfectly obey God without divine help. This fallen state means humans naturally lean towards sin and cannot achieve salvation on their own. This strong view of human ability shows how much God's undeserved grace is needed for redemption, setting Augustine apart from Pelagian views that focused on human free will and merit.
“For in Adam all die, and the disobedience of Adam was the cause of the death not only of himself but of all his posterity.”
In the book: Augustine's extensive refutations of Pelagianism throughout *City of God* (and other works) solidify his doctrine of original sin. He cites Romans 5:12, arguing that 'in Adam all die' refers to a transmission of guilt and corruption, not merely imitation.
Try this: Recognize the inherent biases and inclinations towards self-interest and error in yourself and others. This perspective fosters humility, compassion for human failings, and a greater appreciation for any good achieved, seeing it as potentially divinely assisted. It also underscores the need for moral education and societal structures that account for human imperfection.
Related ideas: original-sin, concupiscence, pelagianism, grace
True Peace vs. Earthly Tranquility
Earthly peace is a temporary good, but true peace lies in alignment with God's eternal order.
Augustine defines peace as 'the order of tranquility' — the organized arrangement of parts in their correct place and job. He separates the limited, often weak peace possible in the Earthly City from the perfect peace found in the City of God. The Earthly City, driven by self-love, seeks a temporary peace that serves its own goals, even through war and control. This peace, though good in some ways and needed for human life, is unstable, prone to conflict, and not enough. True peace, however, is found when the will fully submits to God, aligning with God's order. This spiritual peace goes beyond earthly situations and promises eternal rest and harmony, making it the main goal for God's citizens. This difference shows that all human institutions and achievements are temporary.
“Peace is the tranquility of order.”
In the book: Augustine elaborates on the concept of peace in Book XIX, arguing that even the 'wicked' desire some form of peace, but their peace is always disordered, temporary, and ultimately serves their own ends rather than God's. He contrasts this with the eternal peace of the heavenly city.
Try this: Evaluate your own pursuits of 'peace.' Are you seeking merely the absence of conflict or a deeper, more fundamental alignment with moral and spiritual principles? Work towards creating ordered systems in your life and community, but recognize their inherent limitations and strive for a deeper, more enduring sense of peace found in virtuous living and spiritual connection.
Related ideas: tranquility-of-order, earthly-peace, eternal-peace, divine-order
History as Linear Progression
History is not cyclical but a purposeful, linear journey guided by divine providence towards a predetermined end.
Augustine changed the Western idea of history. Against the common pagan view of history as repeating, Augustine introduced a linear model with a goal. For him, history is not meaningless events but a purposeful story, ordered by God and moving towards a specific end. God, through his unseen plan, arranges all events, even the rise and fall of empires, to bring about the salvation of the City of God. This view gives human history deep meaning and importance, showing that every event, no matter how chaotic or sad, plays a part in God's big plan. This idea gave Christians a clear way to understand their place in time and the final triumph of their faith during Rome's decline.
“For God, who knows all things before they come to pass, and whose foreknowledge cannot be deceived, has arranged the whole course of human history.”
In the book: Augustine extensively critiques pagan historians and philosophers (like Plato and Virgil) who posited cyclical views of history in Books X-XVIII, contrasting their views with the Judeo-Christian narrative of creation, fall, redemption, and final judgment.
Try this: View current events, both personal and global, not as random occurrences but as part of a larger, unfolding narrative. This can provide a sense of purpose and resilience in times of uncertainty, encouraging a long-term perspective and a focus on contributing to lasting good, even when immediate outcomes are unclear.
Related ideas: teleology, divine-providence, eschatology, linear-history
The Impermanence of Earthly Empires
All earthly kingdoms, even the mightiest, are transient and ultimately subservient to God's eternal plan.
Augustine's critique of Rome's fall is a main point in City of God. While acknowledging Rome's successes, he says that all earthly empires, including the strong Roman Empire, are flawed and temporary. Their rise and fall are not due to pagan gods or Christian abandonment, but to God's will, who uses them for His own purposes, often to correct or teach humanity. Earthly kingdoms, even when they achieve some justice and order, are driven by self-love and the desire for temporary power. Their 'peace' is often kept through force and violence, making them 'great robberies' if justice is missing. This view challenges any idea that worships the state or places ultimate hope in political power, reminding us that only the City of God is eternal and truly fair.
“What are kingdoms but great robberies?”
In the book: Augustine dedicates the first five books to refuting the pagan claim that the sack of Rome in 410 AD was due to the abandonment of their gods for Christianity. He meticulously details Rome's internal moral failings and the capricious nature of its 'fortunes,' demonstrating its inherent fragility.
Try this: Cultivate a healthy skepticism towards political leaders and nationalistic fervor. While participating in civic life is important, avoid placing ultimate hope or faith in any human government or institution. Understand that their successes are temporary and their failures are inevitable, fostering a focus on transcendent values.
Related ideas: earthly-city, roman-empire, political-theology, transience
The Role of Government
Earthly government, though flawed, serves a divinely ordained purpose in maintaining order and restraining sin.
Despite his criticism of earthly empires, Augustine does not support chaos. He recognizes that government, even in the fallen world, serves an important, God-given purpose. Because of original sin and human tendency towards disorder, civil government is needed to keep some peace and justice, control evil, and protect its citizens. Its main job is to enforce laws, manage justice, and provide for the common good, allowing God's citizens to pursue their spiritual goals in relative peace. While not the source of salvation or true justice, a fair government is a temporary good, a 'fix for sin's results,' that stops society from falling into chaos. This sets a basic rule for Christian involvement with secular authority.
“A people is an assemblage of reasonable beings bound together by a common agreement as to the objects of their love.”
In the book: Augustine discusses the nature and necessity of government in Book XIX, particularly when defining a 'people' and how their 'common agreement as to the objects of their love' shapes their society and its laws. He also acknowledges that temporal rulers can be instruments of God's will.
Try this: Participate in civic life, uphold just laws, and advocate for good governance, not out of naive belief in its perfectibility, but out of a recognition of its essential role in maintaining order and creating conditions conducive to human flourishing. Support policies that promote justice and restrain harmful actions, even while recognizing the government's limitations.
Related ideas: political-philosophy, common-good, social-order, civic-duty
The Pilgrimage of Faith
Life for the believer is a journey of faith, a temporary sojourn in the Earthly City while yearning for the Heavenly.
For Augustine, a Christian's life in the world is a 'pilgrimage.' Citizens of the City of God are not of this world, even though they live in it. They are 'travelers' or 'exiles' in the Earthly City, using its goods and systems but never fully identifying with them or placing their ultimate hope in them. This journey is marked by faith, patience, and a constant longing for their true home in the Heavenly City. They take part in earthly society, marry, raise families, and work, but their main loyalty and hopes are elsewhere. This idea provides a way to handle the tension between living in the world and not being 'of' the world, offering both a criticism of worldly attachments and a reason for responsible involvement.
“The heavenly city, while on pilgrimage on earth, calls citizens out of all nations.”
In the book: Augustine frequently uses metaphors of pilgrimage, exile, and sojourning throughout the work, especially in Book XIX, when discussing how the heavenly city 'uses' the peace of Babylon (the earthly city) while on its journey.
Try this: Cultivate a sense of detachment from worldly possessions, status, and temporary pleasures. While enjoying and using the good things of this life, remember they are transient. Focus on building an inner life of virtue and faith, recognizing that your ultimate identity and fulfillment come from beyond the present world.
Related ideas: pilgrimage, sojourner, heavenly-city, eschatological-hope
The Enduring Power of Grace
Humanity's fallen state necessitates divine grace as the sole means of salvation and true righteousness.
Given human corruption through original sin, Augustine states that salvation depends entirely on God's undeserved grace. Human free will, though still present, is so damaged that it cannot start or maintain true goodness or achieve salvation alone. Grace is a divine gift that allows humans to desire, choose, and do good works. It is not earned by merit but freely given, showing God's power and mercy. This idea was a big change from more hopeful views of human ability and firmly established how central divine help is in the Christian understanding of salvation. It emphasizes humility, thanks, and reliance on God rather than self-effort.
“For without grace, what is man but a beast?”
In the book: Augustine's persistent arguments against Pelagius, who emphasized human free will and the ability to earn salvation through good works, are woven throughout *City of God*. He consistently champions the absolute necessity and efficacy of divine grace.
Try this: Recognize that any good you accomplish or virtue you possess is, at least in part, a gift. Cultivate humility and a reliance on a higher power for guidance and strength in overcoming personal failings. Avoid self-righteousness and extend grace to others, understanding their own struggles with human imperfection.
Related ideas: divine-grace, free-will, salvation, pelagianism
The Ultimate Goal: Eternal Beatitude
The final destiny of the City of God is eternal life, perfect peace, and unceasing worship of God.
Augustine ends his large work by describing the final destiny of the City of God: eternal happiness in God's presence. This is the 'end without end,' a state of perfect peace, joy, and goodness where all suffering, sin, and death are gone. God's citizens will experience the 'beatific vision,' seeing God face to face, and will live in endless worship and praise. This future vision gives ultimate meaning and purpose to the pilgrimage of faith, making all earthly troubles seem small compared to the promised eternal reward. It offers deep hope and a clear, strong reason for enduring hardship and seeking goodness in this life.
“There we shall rest and see, see and love, love and praise. This is what shall be in the end without end.”
In the book: Augustine dedicates the final books (XX-XXII) to the Last Judgment, the resurrection of the body, and the eternal state of the blessed in the Heavenly City, drawing heavily from scriptural accounts of Revelation.
Try this: Maintain an eternal perspective in your daily life. Let the hope of a greater, more perfect future inform your decisions and priorities. While working to improve the present world, remember that ultimate fulfillment lies beyond it, motivating you to pursue lasting values and spiritual growth.
Related ideas: beatific-vision, eschatology, heavenly-city, eternal-life
City of God Quotes
“You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our heart is restless until it rests in you.”
“The earthly city glories in itself, the Heavenly City glories in the Lord.”
“What then is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.”
“For it is one thing to see the land of peace from a wooded ridge... and another to tread the road that leads to it.”
“The peace of the celestial city is the perfectly ordered and harmonious enjoyment of God, and of one another in God.”
“Thus, in this life, virtue is not the absence of evil desires, but the ability to resist them.”
“For God judged it better to bring good out of evil than to suffer no evil to exist.”
“The love of self, even to the contempt of God, made the earthly city; the love of God, even to the contempt of self, made the heavenly city.”
“True justice is found only in that republic whose founder and ruler is Christ.”
“For no one can be good who does not will to be good, nor can anyone will it unless helped by God.”
“The peace of all things is the tranquility of order.”
“Thus the two cities were created by two kinds of love: the earthly by the love of self, the heavenly by the love of God.”
“For what is the life of the saints but a hymn to God?”
“The good man, though a slave, is free; the wicked, though a king, is a slave.”
Quiz
10 questions on the main ideas. Each answer comes with a short explanation.
Question 1
What is the primary purpose of Augustine's 'City of God' as described in the book's context?
- To provide a historical account of the Roman Empire's fall
- To defend Christianity against pagan accusations after Rome's sack in 410 AD
- To outline a political system for medieval Europe
- To critique the Bible's teachings
Show answer
B. To defend Christianity against pagan accusations after Rome's sack in 410 AD Augustine wrote 'City of God' to respond to pagan claims that Christianity weakened Rome, leading to its sack in 410 AD, by arguing that true security lies in the heavenly city rather than earthly empires.
Question 2
According to Augustine, what are the two cities that form the central framework of the book?
- The City of Rome and the City of Jerusalem
- The City of Man and the City of God
- The City of Faith and the City of Reason
- The City of Earth and the City of Heaven
Show answer
B. The City of Man and the City of God Augustine contrasts the City of Man (earthly, temporal, driven by self-love) with the City of God (spiritual, eternal, driven by love of God), using this dichotomy to explain human history and society.
Question 3
Why is 'City of God' considered vital for understanding modern Western society, as per the book's description?
- Because it directly influenced the American Constitution
- Because it was the most read book in medieval Europe after the Bible
- Because medieval Europe, shaped by this work, was the cradle of modern Western society
- Because it provides scientific explanations for societal development
Show answer
C. Because medieval Europe, shaped by this work, was the cradle of modern Western society The book's description notes that medieval Europe was the cradle of modern Western society, and since 'City of God' had a major influence on the Middle Ages, it helps explain how our world came into being.
Question 4
How does Augustine use the fall of Rome to argue for the superiority of the City of God?
- By claiming that Rome fell because it abandoned pagan gods for Christianity
- By asserting that earthly cities like Rome are inherently sinful and doomed to fail
- By demonstrating that temporal disasters do not affect the eternal City of God, which offers true peace
- By proposing that Rome should have adopted a theocratic government based on Christian principles
Show answer
C. By demonstrating that temporal disasters do not affect the eternal City of God, which offers true peace Augustine argues that the sack of Rome shows the fragility of earthly empires, but the City of God remains secure because it is not tied to temporal events, emphasizing spiritual over material security.
Question 5
In Augustine's framework, what primarily distinguishes the citizens of the City of God from those of the City of Man?
- Their geographic location or nationality
- Their wealth and social status
- Their ultimate love: love of God versus love of self
- Their adherence to specific religious rituals
Show answer
C. Their ultimate love: love of God versus love of self Augustine defines the two cities by the orientation of their love: the City of God is characterized by love of God to the contempt of self, while the City of Man is characterized by love of self to the contempt of God.
Question 6
What practical implication does Augustine's work have for how Christians should engage with political society?
- Christians should withdraw completely from political life to avoid corruption
- Christians should seek to establish a theocratic state based on biblical law
- Christians can participate in earthly society but must prioritize their allegiance to the City of God
- Christians must reject all forms of government as inherently evil
Show answer
C. Christians can participate in earthly society but must prioritize their allegiance to the City of God Augustine advocates for a dual citizenship where Christians engage in earthly affairs to promote peace and justice, but their ultimate loyalty and hope lie in the eternal City of God, not temporal powers.
Question 7
Which of the following best describes Augustine's view on the role of the state in relation to the City of God?
- The state is a divine institution that directly enforces God's will on earth
- The state is a necessary evil that Christians must tolerate but not support
- The state provides temporal peace and order, which can facilitate the pilgrimage of the City of God
- The state is irrelevant to spiritual matters and should be ignored by believers
Show answer
C. The state provides temporal peace and order, which can facilitate the pilgrimage of the City of God Augustine sees the state as a provisional institution that maintains earthly peace (pax terrena), which, while imperfect, can create conditions conducive to the pursuit of the heavenly peace (pax caelestis) of the City of God.
Question 8
How does Augustine's concept of the two cities influence his interpretation of history in 'City of God'?
- He views history as a linear progression toward the inevitable triumph of the City of God on earth
- He sees history as a cyclical conflict between good and evil empires, with Rome as the latest example
- He interprets history as the intertwined and often hidden working out of the two cities' destinies until the final judgment
- He dismisses secular history as irrelevant and focuses solely on biblical events
Show answer
C. He interprets history as the intertwined and often hidden working out of the two cities' destinies until the final judgment Augustine presents history as a drama where the City of God and City of Man are intermingled in time, with their true natures and ultimate ends (salvation or damnation) revealed only at the end of history.
Question 9
In what way did 'City of God' shape medieval thought, according to the book's description?
- By providing a blueprint for feudal economic systems
- By offering a philosophical basis for the separation of church and state
- By deeply influencing theology, politics, and historiography, second only to the Bible in impact
- By promoting scientific inquiry that led to the Renaissance
Show answer
C. By deeply influencing theology, politics, and historiography, second only to the Bible in impact The description states that no book except the Bible had a greater influence on the Middle Ages, implying it shaped key areas like theology (e.g., grace and predestination), politics (e.g., church-state relations), and historical understanding.
Question 10
What is a key challenge Augustine addresses regarding the relationship between divine providence and human free will in 'City of God'?
- He argues that free will is an illusion and all events are predestined by God
- He reconciles God's sovereign control over history with human moral responsibility and choice
- He denies divine providence to emphasize human autonomy in building society
- He claims that free will only applies to spiritual matters, not historical events
Show answer
B. He reconciles God's sovereign control over history with human moral responsibility and choice Augustine navigates the tension by asserting that God foreknows and governs all events (providence) without negating human free will, using this to explain both the rise and fall of empires and individual salvation.
City of God FAQ
What is the main argument of City of God?
Augustine argues that human history is defined by the conflict between two symbolic cities: the City of God, representing those devoted to spiritual values and God's eternal kingdom, and the City of Man, representing those focused on earthly desires and temporal power. He uses this framework to explain the fall of Rome and assert Christianity's role in history.
Does City of God explain the fall of the Roman Empire?
Yes, Augustine addresses the sack of Rome in 410 AD, arguing that its fall was not due to Christianity weakening Roman virtue, as critics claimed, but rather a consequence of the moral corruption inherent in earthly empires. He contrasts Rome's temporal decline with the eternal stability of the City of God.
How different is City of God from Plato's Republic?
While both works explore ideal societies, Plato's Republic focuses on a philosophical utopia grounded in reason and justice in this world, whereas Augustine's City of God presents a theological vision of two spiritual communities, with true fulfillment found only in the heavenly city beyond earthly politics.
What is the 'City of Man' in Augustine's work?
The City of Man symbolizes human society driven by self-love, pride, and temporal ambitions, often exemplified by empires like Rome. It is characterized by conflict, impermanence, and a focus on material success, in contrast to the spiritual harmony of the City of God.
Does City of God work as a political philosophy?
Yes, it influenced medieval political thought by separating spiritual and temporal authority, suggesting that earthly governments are necessary but flawed, and that true justice is only fully realized in God's kingdom. This shaped ideas about church-state relations for centuries.
How different is Augustine's view from modern secular history?
Augustine interprets history through a theological lens, seeing divine providence and moral struggle as central, whereas modern secular history often emphasizes socio-economic factors, human agency, and empirical evidence without reference to spiritual purposes.
What is the significance of City of God for Western civilization?
The book profoundly shaped medieval Europe by integrating Christian theology with classical philosophy, influencing theology, politics, and ethics. It helped define Western concepts of justice, society, and the relationship between religion and public life.
Does Augustine's City of God address evil and suffering?
Yes, Augustine discusses evil as a privation of good, resulting from free will and humanity's fallen state. He argues that suffering in the City of Man is part of a divine plan, with ultimate redemption found in the City of God.
How can City of God be applied to modern life?
Readers can apply its ideas by reflecting on the tension between spiritual values and material pursuits, encouraging a focus on ethical living and community over mere self-interest, and understanding historical events with a broader moral perspective.
What is the 'two cities' concept in simple terms?
Augustine's 'two cities' represent two ways of living: one centered on love of God and eternal truths (City of God), and the other on love of self and worldly gains (City of Man). This metaphor explains human conflicts and the ultimate destiny of souls.
About the author
Augustine of Hippo was a prominent early Christian theologian and philosopher whose lifetime writings profoundly influenced Western Christianity and philosophy. His seminal works, 'Confessions' and 'City of God,' offer deep introspection and theological arguments that remain influential. He is revered as a Doctor of the Church and one of the most important figures in the development of Western thought.
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