Core Idea
- Difficulty
- Hard
- Read it if
- You are a serious student of political philosophy, ethics, or law, interested in foundational theories of justice, the social contract tradition, or a rigorous alternative to utilitarianism. Essential for understanding contemporary liberal thought.
- Skip it if
- You are looking for a light introduction to political ideas, prefer empirical analyses over abstract philosophical arguments, or are not prepared for a dense, highly structured, and extensive theoretical work.
Key Takeaways from A Theory of Justice
Justice as Fairness: The Original Position
Designing a just society from behind a 'veil of ignorance'
Rawls suggests a thought experiment: the 'Original Position,' where individuals choose society's justice principles from behind a 'veil of ignorance.' This veil hides their social status, talents, beliefs, gender, or race. Without this self-knowledge, individuals must make impartial decisions, ensuring the chosen principles are fair to everyone, regardless of their future place in society. This hypothetical situation is designed to prevent selfish biases and lead to truly just principles, reflecting an unbiased agreement among rational individuals.
“The guiding idea is that the principles of justice for the basic structure of society are the object of the original agreement. They are the principles that free and rational persons concerned to further their own interests would accept in an initial position of equality as defining the fundamental terms of their association.”
In the book: The entire conceptual framework of the 'Original Position' and the 'veil of ignorance' is the cornerstone of Rawls's theory, serving as the primary device for deriving his principles of justice.
Try this: When making decisions about public policy or social structures, imagine you don't know your own position or characteristics. Would you still find the policy fair? This helps uncover inherent biases.
Related ideas: original-position, veil-of-ignorance, justice-as-fairness
Two Principles of Justice
Lexical ordering of fundamental liberties and socio-economic equality
Rawls argues that rational individuals in the Original Position would choose two main principles of justice, in a specific 'lexical order.' The First Principle guarantees extensive equal basic liberties for all citizens, such as political liberty, free speech, and the right to personal property. This principle comes first; no social or economic gains can justify violating these basic rights. The Second Principle addresses social and economic inequalities, stating they must meet two conditions: they must benefit the least advantaged members of society (the 'Difference Principle'), and they must be tied to positions open to all under fair equality of opportunity. This order prioritizes liberty over economic gain, and fair opportunity over simple efficiency.
“Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.”
In the book: Rawls explicitly states and elaborates on these two principles throughout the book, particularly in Part I, Section 11, detailing their content and lexical priority.
Try this: When evaluating societal policies, first ensure that basic liberties are universally protected. Only then consider policies addressing economic inequality, prioritizing those that uplift the most vulnerable and ensure open access to opportunities.
Related ideas: first-principle-of-justice, second-principle-of-justice, difference-principle, lexical-priority
Critique of Utilitarianism
Rejecting the sacrifice of individuals for the greater good
Rawls directly challenges utilitarianism, the main political philosophy of his time, which aims to maximize overall societal happiness or welfare. He argues that utilitarianism can justify sacrificing the rights or well-being of a minority if it leads to a greater total good for the majority. Rawls rejects this, stating that individuals have inherent rights and dignity that cannot be overridden, even for collective benefit. His theory says that justice sets boundaries that no amount of social utility can cross, emphasizing the unique value of persons and that individuals should not be treated as mere tools to an end.
“Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others.”
In the book: Rawls dedicates significant portions of his introduction and early chapters to explicitly contrasting his theory with utilitarianism, highlighting its ethical shortcomings regarding individual rights.
Try this: Before endorsing a policy that promises overall societal benefit, critically assess if it unfairly burdens or infringes upon the fundamental rights of any individual or minority group. Prioritize individual inviolability over aggregate utility.
Related ideas: utilitarianism, inviolability-of-persons, individual-rights
Fair Equality of Opportunity
Beyond formal equality to genuine life chances
Rawls's idea of fair equality of opportunity goes beyond simply removing legal barriers to advancement (formal equality). He argues that individuals with similar talents and motivation should have similar life chances, regardless of their socio-economic background. This means society must actively reduce the effects of social and economic circumstances on individuals' prospects. For example, a child from a poor family should have access to the same quality of education and cultural opportunities as a child from a wealthy family, allowing them to compete fairly for desirable positions. This principle requires significant social investment to counter the arbitrary advantages given by birth.
“Offices and positions are to be open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. This means that not only are public offices and social positions open in the sense that individuals are not legally prevented from attaining them, but that all should have a fair chance to attain them.”
In the book: This is the second part of Rawls's Second Principle of Justice, elaborated upon in Part I, Section 12, where he distinguishes it from 'formal equality of opportunity' and discusses its implications for education and social institutions.
Try this: Advocate for policies that actively level the playing field, such as high-quality universal education, affordable healthcare, and programs that support early childhood development, ensuring that background doesn't predetermine one's future.
Related ideas: fair-equality-of-opportunity, formal-equality, life-chances
The Difference Principle
Inequalities are just only if they benefit the least advantaged
The Difference Principle is perhaps the most debated part of Rawls's theory. It states that social and economic inequalities are allowed only if they work to the greatest benefit of society's least advantaged members. This is not about strict equality of outcome, but about ensuring that any inequality clearly improves the prospects of those at the bottom. For example, if allowing higher salaries for certain jobs encourages innovation that creates jobs and improves services for the poor, then such inequality could be justified. However, if inequality only enriches the wealthy without clear benefits for the least advantaged, it is unjust. It is a strong argument for a robust welfare state and progressive taxation.
“Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are ... to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged.”
In the book: The Difference Principle is the first part of Rawls's Second Principle of Justice, thoroughly discussed in Part I, Section 13, where he provides examples of how it might operate in practice.
Try this: When evaluating economic policies, always ask: 'How does this specifically benefit the poorest and most vulnerable in society?' If the answer is 'not at all' or 'it harms them,' then the inequality is unjust according to Rawls.
Related ideas: difference-principle, least-advantaged, economic-inequality, social-justice
Reflective Equilibrium
Balancing considered judgments with theoretical principles
Rawls introduces 'reflective equilibrium' as the way we reach and justify our justice principles. It is a dynamic back-and-forth, not a one-way path from abstract principles to concrete judgments. We start with our intuitive 'considered judgments' about justice (e.g., slavery is wrong). We then try to create general principles that explain these judgments. If the principles conflict with some judgments, we can either change the principles or revise our judgments, aiming for a consistent set of beliefs. This process, moving between specific moral intuitions and general theories, is how Rawls believes we can improve our understanding of justice and achieve a stable moral framework.
“It is a search for a reflective equilibrium between general principles and our considered judgments on particular cases.”
In the book: Rawls describes reflective equilibrium in Part I, Section 9, as the method for justifying the choice of principles in the Original Position and for refining our moral intuitions.
Try this: When faced with a moral or ethical dilemma, don't just rely on intuition or rigid rules. Reflect on your specific judgment, then see if it aligns with broader principles. If not, consider refining both until they are in harmony.
Related ideas: reflective-equilibrium, considered-judgments, moral-philosophy, justification
The Social Contract Reimagined
Hypothetical agreement for a just basic structure
Rawls updates the social contract tradition (linked to Locke, Rousseau, and Kant) with a key change. Unlike historical social contract theories that often describe an actual agreement, Rawls's contract is purely hypothetical. It is an agreement that rational, free, and equal individuals would make under fair conditions (the Original Position). This hypothetical contract's purpose is not to explain government origins, but to determine the basic principles for society's 'basic structure' – its main political, social, and economic institutions. This abstract approach ensures that the resulting principles are universally valid and not dependent on historical events or existing power structures.
“My aim is to present a conception of justice which generalizes and carries to a higher level of abstraction the familiar theory of the social contract.”
In the book: Rawls explicitly states his intention to generalize the social contract theory in his preface and early chapters, setting the stage for the Original Position as his primary contractual device.
Try this: When evaluating the legitimacy of social institutions, ask if their fundamental rules could reasonably be agreed upon by free and equal people who don't know their own future position or advantages within that system.
Related ideas: social-contract, hypothetical-contract, basic-structure-of-society, political-philosophy
Primary Goods as a Metric
Measuring well-being with universally desired resources
To compare individuals and assess fair distributions, Rawls uses 'primary goods.' These are not subjective measures of happiness or utility, but objective necessities that any rational person would want, regardless of their specific life plans. They include basic rights and liberties, freedom of movement and occupation, powers and responsibilities of offices, income and wealth, and the social bases of self-respect. By focusing on primary goods, Rawls avoids the complexities of comparing individual utility and provides a clear way to evaluate whether a society is just, especially concerning the well-being of the least advantaged.
“Primary goods... are things that every rational man is presumed to want. These goods normally have a use whatever a person's rational plan of life.”
In the book: Rawls defines and lists primary goods in Part I, Section 15, explaining their role as the metric for assessing the distribution of benefits and burdens in society.
Try this: When designing social programs or policies, focus on ensuring equitable access to these fundamental primary goods rather than trying to quantify subjective happiness, which is far more complex and prone to bias.
Related ideas: primary-goods, social-bases-of-self-respect, distribution-of-resources, metric-of-justice
Stability and Public Reason
A just society must be inherently stable and publicly justifiable
Rawls argues that a just society must also be stable. This stability comes not from force, but because citizens willingly accept the principles of justice. When a society's institutions follow principles from the Original Position, citizens, after thinking about them, will recognize these principles as fair and reasonable. This builds a 'sense of justice' in individuals, causing them to support and act according to just institutions. Also, political decisions should be justifiable through 'public reason,' meaning they should be explained using principles and evidence that all reasonable citizens, regardless of their moral or religious beliefs, can understand and accept. This ensures legitimate governance in a diverse society.
“For a society to be stable, its basic structure must satisfy the principles of justice, and citizens must acquire a sense of justice, a desire to act in accordance with these principles.”
In the book: Rawls dedicates Part III of the book to the concept of stability, particularly Sections 76-87, discussing the sense of justice and the conditions under which a just society can endure.
Try this: When advocating for a policy, frame your arguments in terms of shared values and principles that are accessible and agreeable to a broad public, rather than relying solely on personal beliefs or specific doctrines. Ensure institutions foster a sense of fairness.
Related ideas: stability-of-justice, public-reason, sense-of-justice, overlapping-consensus
The Priority of Right over Good
Justice defines the boundaries for pursuing individual conceptions of the good
A main idea of Rawls's philosophy is the 'priority of right over good.' This means that justice principles (the 'right') are set before and independently of any specific idea of what makes a good life (the 'good'). In a diverse society, individuals have varied and often conflicting ideas about what makes a life worthwhile. Justice, as fairness, provides a framework of rights and duties that all can agree on, regardless of their personal 'good.' These justice principles then set the limits within which individuals are free to pursue their own ideas of the good, ensuring that no one's pursuit of happiness infringes on the basic rights and liberties of others. This prevents a state from imposing a single, complete moral doctrine.
“The principles of right, and so of justice, put limits on which satisfactions have value; they impose restrictions on what are reasonable conceptions of one's good.”
In the book: Rawls discusses the priority of right throughout the book, particularly in contrast to teleological theories (like utilitarianism) that define the good first and then the right as that which maximizes the good.
Try this: When considering public policy, ensure that the rules and laws prioritize fundamental rights and fairness for all, allowing individuals the freedom to pursue their own life goals, rather than imposing a single vision of the 'good life' on everyone.
Related ideas: priority-of-right, conceptions-of-the-good, liberalism, pluralism
A Theory of Justice Quotes
“Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought.”
“Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others.”
“Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.”
“The original position is a hypothetical situation characterized so as to lead to a certain conception of justice.”
“No one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like.”
“The principles of justice are chosen behind a veil of ignorance.”
“In justice as fairness the original position of equality corresponds to the state of nature in the traditional theory of the social contract.”
“An injustice is tolerable only when it is necessary to avoid an even greater injustice.”
“The greater expectations of those better off are just if and only if they work as part of a scheme which improves the expectations of the least advantaged members of society.”
“The basic structure of society is the primary subject of justice.”
“The two principles of justice are in lexical order.”
“A just society is a society that its members would agree to if they did not know how they would fare in it.”
“The principles of justice apply to the basic structure of society and govern the assignment of rights and duties and regulate the distribution of social and economic advantages.”
“From the standpoint of justice as fairness, the primary subject of justice is the basic structure of society, or more exactly, the way in which the major social institutions distribute fundamental rights and duties and determine the division of advantages from social cooperation.”
Quiz
10 questions on the main ideas. Each answer comes with a short explanation.
Question 1
What is the primary aim of John Rawls's 'A Theory of Justice' regarding the concept of justice?
- To advocate for a pure form of utilitarianism in political thought.
- To express justice as fairness and provide an alternative to utilitarianism.
- To argue for a return to monarchical forms of government.
- To develop a theory of justice based solely on economic efficiency.
Show answer
B. To express justice as fairness and provide an alternative to utilitarianism. Rawls explicitly states his aim is to express 'justice as fairness' and to provide an alternative to the utilitarian tradition that dominated Anglo-Saxon political thought.
Question 2
Which traditional philosophical concept does Rawls substitute for utilitarianism to account for basic rights and liberties?
- The divine right of kings.
- The ideal of the social contract.
- Plato's theory of Forms.
- Aristotle's virtue ethics.
Show answer
B. The ideal of the social contract. The text states that Rawls 'substitutes the ideal of the social contract as a more satisfactory account of the basic rights and liberties of citizens'.
Question 3
According to Rawls, what attribute does each person possess that 'even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override'?
- An inherent right to unlimited wealth.
- An inviolability founded on justice.
- A duty to always prioritize collective good.
- A natural right to rule over others.
Show answer
B. An inviolability founded on justice. Rawls writes, 'Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override,' emphasizing the priority of individual rights.
Question 4
What specific criticism did Rawls's 'A Theory of Justice' receive that led to its revision?
- Its overreliance on historical examples.
- Difficulties found in the original book by himself and others.
- Its failure to acknowledge any previous philosophers.
- Its endorsement of absolute monarchy.
Show answer
B. Difficulties found in the original book by himself and others. The text explicitly states, 'The author has now revised the original edition to clear up a number of difficulties he and others have found in the original book.'
Question 5
Which philosophical tradition had 'dominated the Anglo-Saxon tradition of political thought since the nineteenth century' before Rawls presented his alternative?
- Existentialism.
- Utilitarianism.
- Absolutism.
- Rationalism.
Show answer
B. Utilitarianism. The text states Rawls provides 'an alternative to utilitarianism, which had dominated the Anglo-Saxon tradition of political thought since the nineteenth century.'
Question 6
Rawls's theory of justice aims to provide basic rights and liberties for citizens as what kind of persons?
- Subservient and obedient persons.
- Free and equal persons.
- Wealthy and influential persons.
- Historically privileged persons.
Show answer
B. Free and equal persons. Rawls's social contract account aims to describe 'the basic rights and liberties of citizens as free and equal persons.'
Question 7
The concept of 'justice as fairness' is described as an essential part of which political tradition?
- The autocratic tradition.
- The democratic tradition.
- The communist tradition.
- The libertarian tradition.
Show answer
B. The democratic tradition. Rawls aims 'to express an essential part of the common core of the democratic tradition - justice as fairness'.
Question 8
Which of the following figures is NOT mentioned as an inspiration for Rawls's theory?
- Rousseau.
- Kant.
- Machiavelli.
- Lincoln.
Show answer
C. Machiavelli. The text lists Rousseau, Kant, Emerson, and Lincoln as figures whose ideas Rawls advances, but Machiavelli is not mentioned.
Question 9
How does Rawls's emphasis on individual inviolability directly challenge a core tenet of classical utilitarianism?
- By arguing that individual happiness is irrelevant to justice.
- By asserting that the rights of individuals cannot be sacrificed for the greater good of society.
- By promoting a system where only the elite have rights.
- By suggesting that justice is purely a matter of economic distribution.
Show answer
B. By asserting that the rights of individuals cannot be sacrificed for the greater good of society. Utilitarianism often permits sacrificing individual interests for the overall welfare. Rawls's statement, 'Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override,' directly counters this by prioritizing individual rights over collective utility.
Question 10
Considering the revisions made to the original edition, what might be inferred about the nature of philosophical texts like 'A Theory of Justice'?
- They are typically immutable and rarely subject to change.
- They are dynamic and can be refined in response to critical engagement and evolving understanding.
- Revisions indicate a complete failure of the initial argument.
- Only minor grammatical errors are ever corrected in such works.
Show answer
B. They are dynamic and can be refined in response to critical engagement and evolving understanding. The fact that Rawls revised his work 'to clear up a number of difficulties he and others have found' suggests that philosophical texts, even classics, are subject to ongoing scrutiny, interpretation, and refinement, implying a dynamic rather than static nature.
A Theory of Justice FAQ
What is the main idea of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice?
Rawls's A Theory of Justice proposes 'justice as fairness' as an alternative to utilitarianism, arguing that basic rights and liberties of individuals are inviolable and cannot be overridden by the welfare of society as a whole. It aims to identify principles of justice that free and equal persons would agree to under fair conditions.
What is the 'original position' and the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls's theory?
The 'original position' is a hypothetical scenario where individuals deliberate on principles of justice. Behind the 'veil of ignorance,' they are unaware of their own social status, talents, beliefs, or personal characteristics, ensuring that the chosen principles are fair and unbiased, without self-serving interests.
How does 'justice as fairness' differ from utilitarianism?
'Justice as fairness' prioritizes individual rights and liberties, asserting they cannot be sacrificed for the greater good, even if it maximizes overall societal welfare. Utilitarianism, in contrast, advocates for actions or policies that produce the greatest good for the greatest number, potentially at the expense of individual rights.
Does Rawls's theory advocate for complete economic equality?
Rawls's theory, specifically through the 'difference principle,' does not demand complete economic equality. Instead, it permits social and economic inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society, ensuring a baseline level of well-being for everyone.
What are Rawls's two principles of justice?
Rawls's two principles are: first, each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others. Second, social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
How does A Theory of Justice relate to the social contract tradition?
Rawls revives and reinterprets the social contract tradition, drawing on thinkers like Rousseau and Kant. He uses the idea of a hypothetical social contract, agreed upon in the 'original position' behind the 'veil of ignorance,' to derive the fundamental principles of justice for a well-ordered society.
Is Rawls's theory practical for real-world political systems?
While A Theory of Justice is highly theoretical, its concepts have profoundly influenced discussions on public policy, constitutional law, and distributive justice in democratic societies. Many scholars and policymakers engage with Rawls's framework to evaluate and propose more just societal structures and institutions.
What is the significance of the revised edition of A Theory of Justice?
The revised edition addresses ambiguities and difficulties that Rawls and others identified in the original 1971 publication. It clarifies key concepts, refines arguments, and offers a more robust and coherent presentation of 'justice as fairness,' making the theory more accessible and defensible.
About the author
John Rawls was an American philosopher known for his work in political philosophy and ethics. He is best known for his book "A Theory of Justice," which presents a framework for understanding justice and fairness in society. His ideas have significantly influenced contemporary discussions on social justice and political theory.
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