Synopsis
Covers the whole plot, including the ending.
- Difficulty
- Medium
- Pacing
- Moderate
- Mood
- Melancholic, Reflective, Dramatic, Suspenseful
- Read it if
- You're interested in the human cost of revolution, the perspective of the White Guard during the Russian Civil War, or a poignant family drama set against a backdrop of historical turmoil.
- Skip it if
- You prefer fast-paced action over character-driven historical reflection, or are looking for a politically optimistic portrayal of the Russian Revolution.
The White Guard Plot Summary
Covers the whole plot, including the ending.
The Turbins' Christmas Eve in Kiev
The novel starts in December 1918, in Kiev (called 'The City'), during the Ukrainian Civil War. The Turbin family—the older brother Alexei, a doctor; Nikolai (Nikolka), a young officer; and their sister Elena—live in their family home. They still mourn their mother's recent death, which affects them deeply. Their home is a warm, traditional place, a contrast to the cold, war-torn city outside. As Christmas Eve nears, they host friends and relatives, including Elena's husband, Sergei Talberg, who is seen with doubt because of his political views. The family and their guests talk about the changing political situation, the coming threat of Petliura's Ukrainian nationalists, and the shaky position of the German occupation forces who are about to leave, making the city open to attack.
Talberg's Treachery and the German Retreat
The political situation in Kiev quickly gets worse. The German army, which had supported Hetman Skoropadsky's government, says it will leave, making the city open to Symon Petliura's Directory. In a move that shocks Elena, her husband, Sergei Talberg, says he will flee Kiev with the Germans, leaving her behind. He explains his actions with cold reasons about saving himself, showing his opportunistic nature. Elena is hurt by his betrayal. The family and their friends must face the coming storm, feeling abandoned and more hopeless as the last bit of order disappears.
The City's Fall and Alexei's Duty
As Petliura's forces get closer, a last effort is made to defend Kiev. Young officers and volunteers, including Nikolai Turbin, are called to arms by the Hetmanate government. Alexei Turbin, as a doctor, is sent to a hospital. There is much disorganization and no clear leader. The officers, including Colonel Malyshev, try to gather the cadets and volunteers, but they have little equipment and are outnumbered. The city's people are afraid, with rumors spreading fast. The Turbin family deals with their home being on the front line of a civil conflict, and the brothers get ready for their parts in the city's defense, which seems lost.
The Battle for Kiev and Alexei's Injury
The battle for Kiev happens in disorder. The quickly gathered White Guard units, including Nikolai's group, are overcome by Petliura's stronger forces. Alexei Turbin, treating wounded soldiers, gets caught in the fighting. He is shot in the leg during a retreat and is badly wounded. Barely awake, he is saved by a woman, Yulia Reiss, who takes him into her home and cares for him, risking her own safety. Kiev's defense quickly fails, and Petliura's troops take the city, bringing new fear for the people still there.
Alexei's Fever and Elena's Prayer
Alexei Turbin's wound gets badly infected, causing a high fever. He is near death, and his family fears the worst. Elena, upset, locks herself in her room and prays to the Virgin Mary for her brother to get well. She makes a promise, offering her own happiness for Alexei's life. This personal moment shows Elena's strong faith and her love for her brother. Alexei's fever breaks, and he slowly starts to get better, to his family's great relief. His survival is seen as an answer to Elena's prayer.
Nikolai's Ordeal and Petliura's Reign
Nikolai Turbin, having survived the retreat, walks through the city dressed as a civilian, trying to understand what is happening. He sees the cruelty of Petliura's forces, especially the attacks on Jewish people. He sees the fear among the city's residents. Nikolai also meets the family's friends, Myshlaevsky and Studzinsky, who are also trying to survive. He is deeply affected by the violence and the collapse of the familiar world, thinking about how useless their defense was and the hard future ahead. He eventually gets back to the family home, glad to find his siblings safe, though the city is still under Petliura's control.
The Turbins' Struggle for Survival and Identity
Under Petliura's rule, the Turbin family and their friends struggle to adjust. The city is lawless, with stealing, violence, and constant fear. The family's home, once stable, becomes a fragile safe place. They get visits from friends, including Myshlaevsky, Studzinsky, and Lariosik, a naive cousin who arrives from Zhytomyr, making their household more complicated. Lariosik's innocence gives moments of sad humor during the despair. The family tries to keep some normal life, holding onto traditions, but the outside disorder always threatens to overwhelm them, making them face how fragile their lives are.
The Arrival of the Bolsheviks
Petliura's short rule in Kiev ends when the Bolshevik Red Army advances. The Ukrainian nationalists, disorganized, cannot stop the Bolshevik attack. There is more fighting as Petliura's forces are defeated and leave the city. The Turbins and other residents get ready for another change in power, knowing the Bolsheviks are a different, possibly more dangerous, threat. The city experiences another wave of fear as the Red Army gets closer, meaning one harsh rule ends and another begins, leaving White Guard supporters in danger.
New Realities and Lingering Hopes
As the Bolsheviks take control of Kiev, the Turbin family must face the new government's hard realities. Their old lives, based on their social standing and traditions, are broken. Talberg eventually returns to Kiev, but Elena rejects him, having grown stronger without him. The family, especially Alexei and Nikolai, think about their past loyalties and Russia's future. Despite the despair, there are small signs of strength and a wish for peace. The novel ends with uncertainty, but with the Turbin home as a sign of their endurance during revolution, as they face an unknown future.
Principal Figures
Alexei Turbin
Protagonist
The eldest Turbin brother, a military doctor struggling with his conscience and duty.
Alexei is a 28-year-old doctor, the eldest of the Turbin siblings. He is a thoughtful, often melancholic figure, burdened by the responsibility of his family after his mother's death. He serves as a military doctor, witnessing the horrors of war firsthand, which deeply affects his moral compass. His internal conflict between duty, loyalty to the White cause, and his growing disillusionment with the chaos defines much of his character. His near-death experience from a wound and subsequent fever is a pivotal moment, leading to a spiritual awakening and a deeper appreciation for life and family. He embodies the intelligentsia's struggle to adapt to the revolutionary era.
Relationships: Elena Turbina (Younger sister, close bond, protective); Nikolai Turbin (Younger brother, mentor-like figure); Yulia Reiss (Rescuer and caretaker during his injury)
Elena Turbina (Talberg)
Protagonist/Supporting
The Turbin sister, betrayed by her husband and a beacon of family strength.
Elena is the only sister, married to the opportunistic Sergei Talberg. She is initially portrayed as somewhat fragile and dependent, deeply affected by her mother's death and her husband's betrayal. However, she demonstrates immense inner strength and resilience, particularly when Alexei is gravely ill, where her fervent prayer is depicted as saving his life. Her home is the heart of the Turbin family, a sanctuary against the outside world. She embodies the traditional, spiritual values of the Russian middle class and ultimately rejects her cowardly husband, asserting her independence in the face of adversity.
Relationships: Alexei Turbin (Older brother, deeply loved, protective); Nikolai Turbin (Younger brother, affectionate); Sergei Talberg (Husband who betrays her, later rejected)
Nikolai (Nikolka) Turbin
Protagonist/Supporting
The youngest Turbin brother, a courageous but naive junior officer.
Nikolai, or Nikolka, is the youngest of the Turbin siblings, a seventeen-year-old junior officer. He is brave, idealistic, and somewhat naive, eager to fight for the White cause. He participates in the chaotic defense of Kiev, experiencing the brutality and disorganization of war firsthand. His experiences on the streets of Kiev, particularly witnessing the pogroms and the collapse of order, strip away his youthful illusions. He is deeply loyal to his family and his comrades, and his character represents the younger generation caught in the maelstrom of the revolution, forced to mature rapidly.
Relationships: Alexei Turbin (Older brother, looks up to him); Elena Turbina (Older sister, affectionate); Lieutenant Myshlaevsky (Comrade-in-arms, friend)
Sergei Ivanovich Talberg
Antagonist/Supporting
Elena's opportunistic and cowardly husband.
Talberg is Elena's husband, a former officer who is deeply opportunistic and self-serving. He is a cynical intellectual who prioritizes his own survival and career advancement above all else, even abandoning his wife to flee with the retreating Germans. He is despised by the Turbin family for his lack of principle and his betrayal of Elena. His character embodies the moral decay and self-interest that Bulgakov saw in certain segments of the Russian intelligentsia during the revolution. His brief return and subsequent rejection by Elena highlight her growth and his unchanging nature.
Relationships: Elena Turbina (Husband, betrays her, later rejected); Alexei Turbin (Brother-in-law, mutually disliked)
Lieutenant Victor Myshlaevsky
Supporting
A loyal but disillusioned White Guard officer and family friend.
Myshlaevsky is a close friend of the Turbin family and a fellow White Guard officer. He is a brave and honorable man, but deeply disillusioned by the incompetence and betrayal he witnesses among the command. He endures extreme hardship during the defense of Kiev, including frostbite and near-starvation. He is cynical and often drunk, using humor and alcohol to cope with the horrors of war. Despite his gruff exterior, he is fiercely loyal to his friends and embodies the suffering and resilience of the ordinary officers caught in the civil war.
Relationships: Alexei Turbin (Close friend, comrade); Nikolai Turbin (Comrade-in-arms, friend)
Lieutenant Leonid Studzinsky
Supporting
Another White Guard officer and friend, more stoic than Myshlaevsky.
Studzinsky is another officer and friend of the Turbin family. He is more stoic and less outwardly emotional than Myshlaevsky, but equally committed to the White cause, initially. He shares Myshlaevsky's disillusionment with the command but expresses it with a more reserved bitterness. He is a symbol of the principled but ultimately defeated officers who fought for a lost cause. His presence reinforces the sense of shared fate and camaraderie among the surviving White Guard members, highlighting their collective struggle and despair amidst the changing political landscape.
Relationships: Alexei Turbin (Friend, comrade); Nikolai Turbin (Comrade-in-arms, friend)
Lariosik
Supporting
Elena's naive and clumsy cousin from Zhytomyr.
Lariosik is Elena's distant cousin who arrives in Kiev from Zhytomyr, seeking refuge. He is portrayed as incredibly naive, clumsy, and somewhat irritating, often breaking things and making awkward remarks. His innocence and lack of understanding of the harsh realities of the civil war provide moments of tragicomic relief within the grim narrative. Despite his flaws, he is fundamentally good-hearted and brings a touch of absurdity to the Turbin household, highlighting the contrast between the sheltered pre-war life and the brutal present. He represents the ordinary, bewildered civilian caught in the conflict.
Relationships: Elena Turbina (Cousin, provides refuge); Alexei Turbin (Cousin, tolerated)
Yulia Reiss
Mentioned
The courageous woman who saves Alexei Turbin's life.
Yulia Reiss is a mysterious woman who appears briefly but significantly in the narrative. She rescues the severely wounded Alexei Turbin from the battlefield, takes him into her home, and provides him with shelter and care, risking her own safety in the process. Her act of selfless compassion is a moment of humanity amidst the chaos and brutality of war. She represents the kindness and courage found in unexpected places, and her actions are crucial for Alexei's survival, making her a pivotal, albeit minor, character.
Relationships: Alexei Turbin (Rescuer and caretaker)
Themes & Insights
The Collapse of Order and Civilization
The novel shows the breaking down of social order and civilization in Kiev during the Ukrainian Civil War. The constant changes in power—from the Hetmanate to Petliura to the Bolsheviks—create fear. Bulgakov shows the city as a battleground where lawlessness and violence are common. The Turbin family's struggle to keep their home and traditions shows how fragile their world is, how war removes normal society, making life a fight for survival. The repeated invasions and retreats show how useless resistance is against big historical change.
“And the City, the City was on fire, and the snow, the snow was falling, and the wind, the wind was howling through the streets, and the people, the people were dying.”
Family as a Sanctuary and Source of Strength
The Turbin family home is a main symbol and a safe place for its members against the revolution's chaos. Despite constant threat and betrayals (like Talberg's), the family stays a source of warmth and strength. Elena's prayer for Alexei's recovery, and the siblings' support for each other, show the strong bonds that keep them going. The home holds their shared past, traditions, and values, representing a last bit of humanity in a changed world. Through their family connections, the characters find the strength to last.
“The Turbins' house was a shelter from the storm, a haven of warmth and light in the freezing, dark city.”
Disillusionment and the Futility of War
The novel looks at the disappointment felt by the White Guard officers, especially Alexei, Myshlaevsky, and Studzinsky. Their early ideals and commitment to fight for a 'White' Russia are slowly lost due to their commanders' poor leadership, betrayal by allies (like the Germans), and the war's sheer brutality. The messy defense of Kiev, the senseless deaths, and the constant power shifts show how useless their sacrifices are. Alexei's near-death experience and Nikolka's observations of attacks contribute to a feeling of despair and the realization that their fight is for a lost cause, making them question all their old beliefs.
“All was lost. All was ruined. The white cause was a phantom, and they were all specters.”
Faith and Spirituality
Despite the harshness of war and the collapse of normal morality, faith and spirituality are important themes, especially through Elena Turbina. Her desperate prayer for Alexei's life is a main moment, shown as a direct event that saves her brother. This shows the lasting power of religious belief for comfort and hope in very hard times. The Turbins' Orthodox Christian faith gives them a moral guide and strength, contrasting with the revolution's cruelty, suggesting that spiritual strength can last even when everything else breaks down.
“And the Mother of God heard her, and the fever broke, and Alexei Turbin was saved.”
The Plight of the Intelligentsia
Bulgakov, who was an educated person, focuses on how the revolution affected this social class. The Turbin family, with their education and professions (Alexei as a doctor, Elena as a cultured woman), represent the middle and upper-middle classes caught between the fighting groups. They are not peasants or factory workers, and their problems are often not told in revolution stories. The novel shows their struggle to adjust, their loss of status, and their feeling of being cut off as their familiar world is destroyed, forcing them to face new, hard realities.
“The intelligentsia was like a flock of sheep, driven from one pasture to another, always at the mercy of the wolves.”
Plot Devices & Literary Techniques
The Turbin Home
A symbol of stability, tradition, and sanctuary amidst chaos.
The Turbin home is not merely a setting but a central character and a powerful symbol. It represents the old world, the values of family, intellectualism, and stability that are rapidly disappearing. Its warmth, books, and familiar objects provide a stark contrast to the freezing, violent city outside. It functions as a sanctuary, a place where the family can find refuge, share their grief, and reaffirm their bonds. Its repeated vulnerability to invasion and the family's desperate efforts to preserve it underscore the fragility of their way of life in the face of revolutionary upheaval.
Shifting Perspectives / Omniscient Narrator
A narrative voice that provides both intimate character insights and broad historical context.
Bulgakov employs an omniscient narrator who often shifts perspective, moving seamlessly between the internal thoughts and experiences of various characters (primarily the Turbins) and broader, almost poetic, descriptions of Kiev and the historical events unfolding. This allows for both deep psychological insight into the characters' struggles and a panoramic view of the chaotic civil war. The narrator frequently interjects with philosophical reflections, historical commentary, and even direct addresses to the reader, creating a unique blend of personal drama and epic historical sweep, often with a melancholic or ironic tone.
The City (Kiev) as a Character
Kiev itself is portrayed as a living entity, experiencing suffering and change.
Kiev, referred to consistently as 'The City,' is personified throughout the novel, taking on a character of its own. It is depicted as a beautiful but suffering entity, repeatedly besieged, occupied, and plundered by various factions. The narrator describes its changing moods, its physical destruction, and its emotional toll on its inhabitants. This personification elevates Kiev beyond a mere backdrop, making it an active participant in the drama, reflecting the collective trauma and resilience of its people. The city's fate mirrors the Turbins' own struggle for survival and identity.
Dream Sequences and Hallucinations
Moments of altered reality that reveal inner turmoil and foreshadow events.
Dream sequences and fever-induced hallucinations, particularly during Alexei Turbin's illness, serve as a significant plot device. These moments allow Bulgakov to delve into the characters' subconscious fears, anxieties, and spiritual states without direct exposition. Alexei's delirium, for instance, contains symbolic imagery and foreshadows the broader spiritual and political struggles. These sequences blur the line between reality and the internal world, adding a layer of psychological depth and often conveying profound truths about the characters' experiences and the surreal nature of the war.
The White Guard Quotes
“Everything will pass. Suffering, torment, blood, hunger, and pestilence. The sword will vanish, but the stars will remain when the shadows of our presence and our deeds have vanished from the earth.”
“The city was beautiful in the snow, in the frost, and in the icy sun.”
“A man must accept his fate, whatever it may be.”
“The most important thing in life is to know how to wait.”
“There are no such things as coincidences. Everything is predestined.”
“The past is a dream, the future a mystery, and the present a gift.”
“In war, truth is the first casualty.”
“The heart knows no logic; it only knows what it feels.”
“We are all prisoners of our own time.”
“The snow fell silently, covering the sins of the city.”
“Courage is not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it.”
“The world is a stage, and we are but players.”
“In the end, we are all alone with our conscience.”
“The night is darkest just before the dawn.”
Quiz
10 questions on the plot and the characters. Each answer comes with a short explanation.
Question 1
What is the primary setting of 'The White Guard'?
- Moscow during the Russian Revolution
- Kiev during the Russian Revolution
- St. Petersburg during World War I
- A rural village during the Civil War
Show answer
B. Kiev during the Russian Revolution The novel is set in Kiev during the Russian Revolution, focusing on the Turbin family's experiences as the city becomes a battleground between various factions.
Question 2
Which family is at the center of the story in 'The White Guard'?
- The Romanovs
- The Turbins
- The Bolkonskys
- The Rostovs
Show answer
B. The Turbins The Turbin family, consisting of siblings Alexei, Elena, and Nikolka, along with their friends and household, are the main characters whose lives are disrupted by the revolution.
Question 3
Why did 'The White Guard' contribute to Bulgakov's troubles with Soviet authorities?
- It was seen as politically incorrect
- It was banned for being too violent
- It criticized Lenin personally
- It was published without permission
Show answer
A. It was seen as politically incorrect The novel was not seen as politically correct because it sympathetically portrayed the middle-classes and White Army supporters during the revolution, conflicting with Soviet ideology that favored the working class.
Question 4
What social class does 'The White Guard' primarily focus on, according to the description?
- The working class
- The aristocracy
- The middle-classes
- The peasantry
Show answer
C. The middle-classes The book tells the story of the Turbin family and the war's effect on the middle-classes, rather than workers or other social groups, which was unusual for Soviet-era literature.
Question 5
How does the tone of 'The White Guard' compare to Bulgakov's more famous work, 'The Master and Margarita'?
- It is more comic and satirical
- It is completely different in tone
- It is similarly fantastical
- It is more optimistic and uplifting
Show answer
B. It is completely different in tone While 'The Master and Margarita' is known for its comic and fantastical elements, 'The White Guard' is described as completely different in tone, being a serious historical novel about the revolution's impact.
Question 6
In what year was 'The White Guard' published as a novel, according to the description?
- 1917
- 1925
- 1967
- 1936
Show answer
C. 1967 The novel was published in 1967, long after Bulgakov's death, as it faced censorship and delays due to its controversial content during the Soviet era.
Question 7
What adaptation of 'The White Guard' is mentioned in the description?
- A successful play
- A blockbuster film
- A television series
- An opera
Show answer
A. A successful play The novel was turned into a successful play at the time of its publication in 1967, highlighting its popularity despite political controversies.
Question 8
Which of the following best describes the historical context of 'The White Guard'?
- It depicts the Napoleonic Wars in Russia
- It focuses on World War II and the Siege of Leningrad
- It is set during the Russian Revolution and Civil War
- It covers the Stalinist purges of the 1930s
Show answer
C. It is set during the Russian Revolution and Civil War The book is set in Kiev during the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Civil War, capturing the chaos and conflict as the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces) and others vie for control.
Question 9
What aspect of 'The White Guard' made it a well-loved book despite its political issues?
- Its humorous take on Soviet life
- Its engaging portrayal of family and personal struggles during turmoil
- Its endorsement by Soviet officials
- Its focus on technological advancements
Show answer
B. Its engaging portrayal of family and personal struggles during turmoil The novel was well-loved for its engrossing story of the Turbin family and their friends, humanizing the middle-class experience during the revolution, which resonated with readers despite official disapproval.
Question 10
How does 'The White Guard' differ from typical Soviet narratives about the revolution?
- It ignores the revolution entirely
- It portrays the middle-classes sympathetically rather than focusing on workers
- It is written in a non-Russian language
- It celebrates the Bolshevik victory unequivocally
Show answer
B. It portrays the middle-classes sympathetically rather than focusing on workers Unlike standard Soviet literature that glorified the working class and Bolsheviks, 'The White Guard' sympathetically depicts the middle-classes and White Army supporters, offering a nuanced view that challenged official propaganda.
The White Guard FAQ
What is 'The White Guard' about?
The novel follows the Turbin family—Alexei, Elena, and Nikolka—and their friends in Kiev during the Russian Civil War (1918-1919), as they navigate the collapse of the White Army and the rise of Bolshevik forces. It depicts their personal struggles, loyalties, and losses amid the chaos of revolution, focusing on the middle-class experience rather than the working class.
Why should I read 'The White Guard'?
It offers a gripping, humanized portrayal of the Russian Civil War from the perspective of those caught in the middle, blending historical detail with deep character studies. Bulgakov's semi-autobiographical insights and the novel's controversial history under Soviet censorship add layers of significance to its narrative.
What is the background/setting of 'The White Guard'?
Set in Kiev in 1918-1919 during the Russian Civil War, the backdrop features the city's shifting control between the White Army, Ukrainian nationalists, and Bolshevik forces. The Turbins' apartment serves as a symbolic refuge amidst the surrounding violence and political turmoil.
What are the most memorable quotes?
Notable quotes include Alexei Turbin's reflection, 'Everything will pass. Suffering, pain, blood, hunger, and pestilence... but the stars will remain,' highlighting hope amid despair, and the description of Kiev as 'the city that had seen so much,' emphasizing its historical weight.
What writing style does the author use?
Bulgakov employs a realistic, detailed prose with vivid descriptions of settings and internal monologues, blending historical narrative with intimate family drama. His style is more somber and straightforward here compared to the satirical fantasy of 'The Master and Margarita.'
What minor details add significant meaning?
The constant references to the Turbins' warm, lamp-lit apartment contrast with the cold, dark streets of Kiev, symbolizing fragile domesticity against external chaos. Small acts like Elena caring for wounded soldiers underscore themes of compassion amid brutality.
What are some subtle foreshadowing moments?
Early mentions of the 'white snow' covering Kiev hint at the impending defeat of the White Army, while characters' discussions of uncertain futures foreshadow personal tragedies, such as Alexei's near-fatal injury and the disintegration of their social circle.
What unexpected character connections exist?
The Turbins' friend, Myshlaevsky, a loyal White officer, later faces moral conflicts when interacting with former comrades who switch sides, revealing the blurred lines between loyalty and survival in the war.
What are unspoken character motivations?
Alexei Turbin is driven by a deep-seated duty to his family and ideals, often masking his fear of failure. Elena's steadfastness hides her desperation to preserve normalcy, while Nikolka's youthful bravado conceals a need for purpose in the collapsing world.
What psychological complexities do characters exhibit?
Characters grapple with cognitive dissonance, as seen in Alexei's struggle between his White Army loyalty and the reality of its defeat. Elena embodies resilience tinged with sorrow, and secondary characters like Shervinsky display opportunism masked by charm.
What are the major emotional turning points?
Key moments include Alexei's severe wounding, which shatters the family's stability; the death of friends in battle, forcing acceptance of loss; and the final scenes where the Turbins confront an uncertain future, symbolizing the end of their old world.
How do relationship dynamics evolve?
The Turbin siblings grow closer under pressure, while friendships strain under political divides—e.g., Myshlaevsky's loyalty is tested. Romantic subplots, like Elena's marriage, reflect the instability of personal bonds in wartime.
Which parts remain ambiguous or open-ended?
The novel's ending leaves the Turbins' fate uncertain, with Kiev under Bolshevik control, inviting debate on whether they find resilience or despair. Bulgakov avoids clear political resolutions, focusing instead on the human cost of war.
What are controversial scenes or decisions?
Scenes depicting the White Army's brutality and the Turbins' sympathy for defeated causes were controversial in Soviet times, leading to censorship. Bulgakov's neutral portrayal of both sides challenged official narratives of the revolution.
'The White Guard' ending explained: how it ends & what it means
The novel ends with the Turbins surviving but facing a bleak future as Bolshevik forces solidify control in Kiev. It symbolizes the irreversible loss of their world, emphasizing themes of endurance and the personal toll of historical upheaval over political victory.
About the author
Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov was a Russian, later Soviet writer, medical doctor, and playwright active in the first half of the 20th century. He is best known for his novel The Master and Margarita, published posthumously, which has been called one of the masterpieces of the 20th century.
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