Core Idea
- Difficulty
- Hard
- Read it if
- You want to understand the philosophical bedrock of modern liberal democracy, natural rights, and the justification for revolution against tyrannical governments. Essential for students of political philosophy, history, and law.
- Skip it if
- You are looking for a light read or a modern political analysis; this is dense 17th-century philosophy with specific historical context (e.g., critique of Robert Filmer).
Key Takeaways from Two Treatises of Government
Natural Rights Precede Government
Individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property independent of any state.
Locke argues that before government, humans live in a 'state of nature.' There, they are free, equal, and guided by the 'law of nature'—which is reason. This law says no one should harm another's life, health, liberty, or possessions. These rights are inherent, not given by rulers or societies. The right to property, for instance, comes from an individual's labor mixing with common resources, making that resource their own. This idea changed political thought from divine right of kings to a focus on individual rights that government must respect.
“The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.”
In the book: Locke's detailed exposition in Chapter II of the Second Treatise, 'Of the State of Nature,' where he systematically outlines the conditions and laws governing individuals prior to civil society.
Try this: When evaluating government actions, consider whether they uphold or infringe upon fundamental individual rights to life, liberty, and property. Advocate for policies that secure these rights rather than those that seek to control or diminish them.
Related ideas: state-of-nature, natural-law, individual-rights, property-rights
Government by Consent of the Governed
Legitimate political authority derives solely from the explicit or tacit agreement of the people.
Locke states that people leave the state of nature and form civil society to better protect their natural rights, especially property. This move is voluntary, based on each person's consent. Therefore, government's legitimacy comes directly from the people's agreement to be governed. This consent can be explicit, through direct agreement, or tacit, by enjoying government benefits like owning property or using public roads. This principle rejects absolute monarchy and divine right, making the people the ultimate source of power and challenging rulers who govern without their subjects' approval.
“Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal, and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.”
In the book: Locke's discussion in Chapter VIII of the Second Treatise, 'Of the Beginning of Political Societies,' where he details how individuals unite and consent to form a commonwealth, and the nature of tacit consent.
Try this: Actively participate in democratic processes like voting, advocacy, and civic discourse to ensure that government remains accountable and reflective of the people's will. Question policies that lack broad public support or are imposed without sufficient consultation.
Related ideas: social-contract, consent-of-governed, political-legitimacy, popular-sovereignty
Limited Government and Rule of Law
Government's power must be constrained by established laws and focused on protecting natural rights.
For Locke, government's main purpose is not to have absolute power, but to protect citizens' natural rights, especially their property. To do this, government must operate under known, established laws, applied fairly to everyone, rather than arbitrary commands. This 'rule of law' means both the governed and governors are subject to the same laws, preventing tyranny and ensuring fairness. Any government that acts outside these limits, or tries to arbitrarily violate rights, breaks its purpose and loses its legitimacy. This idea supports constitutionalism and checks on power.
“Absolute arbitrary power, or governing without settled standing laws, can neither consist with the ends of society and government, which are the preservation of property, nor be tolerable by a free people.”
In the book: Locke's argument in Chapter XI of the Second Treatise, 'Of the Extent of the Legislative Power,' where he outlines the fundamental limits on legislative authority, including governing by promulgated standing laws and not by arbitrary decrees.
Try this: Support constitutional frameworks that define and limit governmental powers. Advocate for judicial independence and transparent legal processes that ensure laws are applied fairly and consistently to all citizens, including those in power.
Related ideas: rule-of-law, constitutionalism, limited-government, tyranny-prevention
Right to Revolution
Citizens have the right, and sometimes the duty, to overthrow a tyrannical government.
If a government consistently fails to protect its citizens' natural rights, particularly their property and liberty, or if it betrays the trust placed in it, it becomes tyrannical. In such a situation, the people are no longer obligated to obey. They have the right to resist and even overthrow that government to create a new one that will uphold their rights. This is a last resort when rulers have fundamentally broken the social contract. This idea greatly influenced later revolutions, including the American and French Revolutions, by providing a philosophical reason for rebellion against oppressive regimes.
“Whenever the legislators endeavour to take away, and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any farther obedience.”
In the book: Locke's powerful concluding chapters, XIX ('Of the Dissolution of Government'), where he articulates the conditions under which a government is dissolved and the people regain their right to establish a new legislative power.
Try this: Engage in peaceful protest and civil disobedience when government actions are perceived as tyrannical or unjust. Understand that the right to revolution is a grave last resort, emphasizing the importance of robust democratic checks and balances to prevent such a scenario.
Related ideas: tyranny, social-contract-breach, justified-rebellion, popular-resistance
Separation of Powers (Implicit)
Government functions should be divided to prevent the concentration of absolute authority.
While not as detailed as Montesquieu's later ideas, Locke clearly identifies separate governmental powers: legislative, executive, and federative (foreign policy and war/peace). He argues against combining legislative and executive powers, recognizing that people tend to abuse power. If those who make laws also enforce them, they might exempt themselves or tailor laws for their own benefit. This separation, especially between law-making and law-enforcing, is essential for preventing arbitrary rule and protecting liberty. It is a cornerstone of modern democratic governance.
“It may be too great a temptation to human frailty, apt to grasp at power, for the same persons, who have the power of making laws, to have also in their hands the power to execute them.”
In the book: Locke's analysis in Chapter XII of the Second Treatise, 'Of the Legislative, Executive, and Federative Power of the Commonwealth,' where he distinguishes these powers and argues for their separation, particularly the legislative and executive.
Try this: Advocate for institutional designs that ensure checks and balances between different branches of government. Pay attention to proposed legislation or executive orders that could consolidate too much power in one branch or individual.
Related ideas: checks-and-balances, legislative-power, executive-power, prevention-of-tyranny
Labor Theory of Property
Individuals acquire ownership of resources by mixing their labor with them.
Locke's theory of property is central to his political philosophy. He argues that God initially gave the Earth to all humanity. However, individuals get private property by applying their labor to common resources. When a person harvests fruit, farms land, or hunts, their effort 'mixes' with the natural resource, making it their own. This property right is natural and exists before government. Locke also includes conditions: one should only take what one can use (the 'spoilage proviso') and leave 'enough, and as good' for others (the 'sufficiency proviso'). While money later complicates the spoilage proviso, the main idea is that labor creates legitimate ownership.
“Every man has a property in his own person: this no body has any right to but himself. The labour of his body, and the work of his hands, we may say, are properly his. Whatsoever then he removes out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property.”
In the book: Locke's detailed explanation in Chapter V of the Second Treatise, 'Of Property,' where he systematically builds the case for private property originating from individual labor.
Try this: Reflect on how your labor creates value and ownership. Consider the ethical implications of resource allocation and consumption, particularly regarding the 'enough and as good' proviso in a world of finite resources.
Related ideas: labor-value, private-property, spoilage-proviso, sufficiency-proviso
Trust as the Basis of Governance
Government is a fiduciary trust, holding power on behalf of the people for their benefit.
Locke sees government not as a master, but as a trustee. The people give power to their rulers, not for arbitrary rule, but specifically to protect their natural rights and promote the common good. This 'fiduciary trust' means power is conditionally granted and can be taken back if the government abuses its authority or acts against the people's interests. This idea emphasizes government's accountability to its citizens and reinforces that political power is a delegated responsibility, not an inherent right of rulers. It's a strong framework for understanding governmental duties.
“The legislative acts against the trust reposed in them, when they endeavour to invade the property of the subject, and to make themselves, or any part of the community, masters, or arbitrary disposers of the lives, liberties, or fortunes of the people.”
In the book: Locke's repeated use of the concept of 'trust' throughout the Second Treatise, particularly in Chapter XIII ('Of the Subordination of the Powers of the Commonwealth') and Chapter XIX ('Of the Dissolution of Government'), where he outlines how breaches of trust lead to dissolution.
Try this: Hold elected officials and government agencies accountable for their actions. Demand transparency and ethical conduct, recognizing that public office is a trust, not a personal entitlement. Support independent oversight bodies.
Related ideas: fiduciary-duty, governmental-accountability, public-trust, conditional-power
Reason as the Guiding Principle
Human reason is the foundation of natural law and the path to understanding just governance.
Locke trusts human reason as the faculty that lets individuals understand the 'law of nature' and their rights and duties. In the state of nature, reason is the only guide, stating that all are equal and independent and should not harm each other. Even after civil society forms, reason is still important for interpreting laws, making moral judgments, and evaluating government actions. This focus on reason differs greatly from relying on divine revelation or inherited authority as the only basis for political order. It empowers individuals to think critically about their government and their place in society.
“Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.”
In the book: Locke's opening arguments in the Second Treatise, particularly Chapter II, where he defines the law of nature as 'reason' and explains its binding force on all individuals.
Try this: Cultivate critical thinking skills and engage in rational discourse when discussing political and social issues. Base arguments on logical principles and evidence rather than emotion or unquestioned authority.
Related ideas: enlightenment, rationality, natural-reason, critical-thought
Critique of Absolute Monarchy
Absolute monarchy is fundamentally incompatible with civil society and the protection of rights.
A main goal of Locke's work, especially the First Treatise, was to dismantle Robert Filmer's theory of divine right of kings. In the Second Treatise, Locke argues that absolute monarchy is flawed because it places the monarch above the law. This leaves citizens without an impartial judge or recourse against the ruler's arbitrary will. In such a system, the monarch remains in a 'state of nature' relative to their subjects, with no higher authority to appeal to. This makes absolute monarchy worse than the state of nature, as there is no check on power. Locke believes true civil society needs a common, known law and an impartial judge, which an absolute monarch prevents.
“Absolute monarchy, which by some men is counted the only government in the world, is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all.”
In the book: Locke's direct refutation of absolute monarchy in Chapter VII of the Second Treatise, 'Of Political or Civil Society,' where he argues that it cannot be a form of civil government.
Try this: Be wary of any political system or leader that seeks to consolidate absolute power or place themselves above the law. Support institutions and norms that ensure no individual is beyond accountability.
Related ideas: divine-right-of-kings, absolutism, tyrannical-rule, state-of-war
The Purpose of Law
Laws are designed to preserve and enlarge freedom, not to restrict it arbitrarily.
Locke challenges the common idea that law restricts freedom. Instead, he argues that true freedom is impossible without law. Without law, individuals are subject to others' arbitrary will and violence, leading to an insecure existence. Just laws, however, define and protect the boundaries within which individuals can exercise their liberty without violating others' rights. They provide security and predictability, thus expanding, not lessening, individual freedom. Law's purpose is to guide rational beings toward their true interest, which is the preservation and expansion of their own and others' natural rights.
“For in all the states of created beings capable of laws, where there is no law, there is no freedom. For liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others; which cannot be where there is no law.”
In the book: Locke's explanation in Chapter VI of the Second Treatise, 'Of Paternal Power,' where he famously states, 'where there is no law, there is no freedom,' and elaborates on the relationship between law and liberty.
Try this: Support laws that are clear, just, and apply equally to all, as these foster true liberty. Critically examine laws that appear to arbitrarily restrict freedoms without a clear benefit to the common good or protection of rights.
Related ideas: rule-of-law, negative-liberty, legal-framework, security-and-freedom
Two Treatises of Government Quotes
“The great and chief end, therefore, of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property.”
“But though this be a state of liberty, yet it is not a state of licence.”
“Where-ever law ends, tyranny begins.”
“Every man has a property in his own person: this nobody has any right to but himself.”
“For nobody can transfer to another more power than he has in himself.”
“Rebellion being an opposition, not to persons, but to authority, which is founded only in the constitutions and laws of the government.”
“Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.”
“The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom.”
“For without property, there can be no society.”
“The legislative cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands.”
“And thus, in the beginning, all the world was America.”
“To understand political power right, and derive it from its original, we must consider, what state all men are naturally in.”
“As usurpation is the exercise of power, which another has a right to; so tyranny is the exercise of power beyond right, which nobody can have a right to.”
“For a man, not having the power of his own life, cannot, by compact, or his own consent, enslave himself to any one, nor put himself under the absolute, arbitrary power of another.”
Quiz
10 questions on the main ideas. Each answer comes with a short explanation.
Question 1
Which of the following best describes Locke's primary argument against the divine right of kings in the *First Treatise*?
- That Adam's natural authority was passed down through primogeniture to all kings.
- That divine right is a contradiction to the principles of feudalism.
- That there is no evidence in Scripture or reason that Adam had such absolute dominion, nor any clear line of succession if he did.
- That only elected monarchs can claim divine favor.
Show answer
C. That there is no evidence in Scripture or reason that Adam had such absolute dominion, nor any clear line of succession if he did. In the *First Treatise*, Locke systematically dismantles Sir Robert Filmer's argument for the divine right of kings, primarily by showing that neither Scripture nor reason supports Adam's supposed absolute dominion, and even if it did, there's no way to determine his true heirs.
Question 2
According to Locke in the *Second Treatise*, what is the natural state of all men prior to forming a government?
- A state of constant warfare and fear, where life is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'.
- A state of perfect freedom and equality, governed by the law of nature.
- A state of inherent submission to the strongest individual.
- A state where all property is held in common, without individual ownership.
Show answer
B. A state of perfect freedom and equality, governed by the law of nature. Locke describes the State of Nature in the *Second Treatise* as a state of perfect freedom and equality, where individuals are bound by the Law of Nature, which dictates that no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.
Question 3
What is the primary reason individuals enter into a civil society, according to Locke?
- To accumulate greater personal wealth through collective endeavor.
- To escape the fear of eternal damnation.
- For the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties, and estates, which he calls 'property'.
- To establish a monarch with absolute power to enforce order.
Show answer
C. For the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties, and estates, which he calls 'property'. Locke explicitly states in the *Second Treatise* that the 'great and chief end' of men uniting into commonwealths and putting themselves under government is the 'preservation of their property', which he defines broadly to include their lives, liberties, and estates.
Question 4
How does Locke justify private property ownership in the State of Nature?
- Property is granted by divine decree to certain individuals.
- By mixing one's labor with something in the common, one makes it one's own, provided 'enough and as good' is left for others.
- Through a system of communal agreement and redistribution.
- It is determined by physical strength and the ability to defend one's claims.
Show answer
B. By mixing one's labor with something in the common, one makes it one's own, provided 'enough and as good' is left for others. Locke's labor theory of property is central to his argument: an individual gains ownership over something by applying their labor to it, extracting it from the common. This is limited by the proviso that there must be 'enough and as good left in common for others'.
Question 5
What role does 'consent' play in the formation and legitimacy of government for Locke?
- Consent is only necessary for the initial establishment of a monarchy.
- Government derives its just powers from the explicit and ongoing consent of the governed, either express or tacit.
- Consent is a theoretical concept with no practical application.
- Only property owners are required to give consent.
Show answer
B. Government derives its just powers from the explicit and ongoing consent of the governed, either express or tacit. Consent is foundational to Locke's political philosophy. He argues that no government can legitimately exist without the consent of the governed, which can be either 'express' (explicit agreement) or 'tacit' (enjoying the benefits of the government's protection).
Question 6
According to Locke, under what circumstances do the people have a right to resist or dissolve their government?
- Only if the government fails to provide adequate public entertainment.
- When the government acts contrary to the trust placed in it, particularly by invading the people's property.
- Whenever a small faction disagrees with a specific policy.
- Never, as government authority is absolute once established.
Show answer
B. When the government acts contrary to the trust placed in it, particularly by invading the people's property. Locke famously defends the right of revolution. If the government acts 'contrary to their trust'—especially by attempting to take away or destroy the property of the people, or reduce them to slavery—the people retain the right to remove or alter the legislative.
Question 7
What specific argument did Sir Robert Filmer present in *Patriarcha* that Locke refutes in the *First Treatise*?
- That the state is a social contract formed by free individuals.
- That all legitimate government is founded on the paternal authority of Adam, passed down through primogeniture to kings.
- That absolute monarchy is inherently unstable and prone to tyranny.
- That property rights are derived solely from positive law.
Show answer
B. That all legitimate government is founded on the paternal authority of Adam, passed down through primogeniture to kings. Filmer's *Patriarcha* argued for the divine right of kings by asserting that Adam's original paternal authority, granted by God, was inherited by all subsequent monarchs. Locke's *First Treatise* is a direct, detailed refutation of this specific argument.
Question 8
How does Locke distinguish between 'paternal power' and 'political power'?
- Paternal power is absolute over children for life; political power is absolute over subjects for life.
- Paternal power is temporary and for the good of the child; political power is derived from consent and aims at the public good.
- Paternal power is based on force; political power is based on divine decree.
- There is no fundamental difference; they are both forms of absolute authority.
Show answer
B. Paternal power is temporary and for the good of the child; political power is derived from consent and aims at the public good. Locke meticulously separates these powers in the *Second Treatise*. Paternal power is limited, temporary, and for the benefit of the child until they reach the age of reason. Political power, in contrast, is derived from the consent of free and equal individuals and is for the public good, protecting their property.
Question 9
The revised edition of Laslett's standard edition, as described, incorporates what new elements?
- A completely new interpretation of Locke's views on economics, rejecting previous scholarship.
- References to recent scholarship since the second edition and an updated bibliography.
- Previously undiscovered writings by Locke that alter the core arguments of the *Treatises*.
- A modern English translation of the original 17th-century text.
Show answer
B. References to recent scholarship since the second edition and an updated bibliography. The description states that the 'Introduction and text have been revised to incorporate references to recent scholarship since the second edition and the bibliography has been updated.' This reflects the continuous academic engagement with Locke's work.
Question 10
What is the primary danger Locke identifies with an absolute monarchy, even if it were benevolent?
- It is inefficient in managing public finances.
- It leaves individuals without an impartial judge, as the monarch is both judge and party in disputes concerning subjects' rights.
- It inevitably leads to a decline in artistic and cultural production.
- It prevents the natural development of trade and commerce.
Show answer
B. It leaves individuals without an impartial judge, as the monarch is both judge and party in disputes concerning subjects' rights. Locke argues in the *Second Treatise* that absolute monarchy is worse than the State of Nature in a crucial respect: it removes the possibility of appeal. If the absolute monarch wrongs a subject, there is no impartial authority to whom the subject can appeal, leaving them without recourse.
Two Treatises of Government FAQ
What is the core argument presented in Locke's Two Treatises of Government?
Locke's core argument asserts that legitimate government is derived from the consent of the governed and is obligated to protect natural rights, primarily life, liberty, and property. He posits a state of nature governed by natural law and argues that government's failure to uphold these rights justifies revolution.
Does Locke's concept of 'natural rights' still apply in modern political thought?
Yes, Locke's concept of natural rights profoundly influenced subsequent political philosophy and the development of human rights declarations worldwide. His ideas form a foundational basis for many contemporary discussions about individual liberties and the limits of state power.
What is the 'state of nature' according to John Locke?
The 'state of nature' for Locke is a pre-political condition where individuals are free and equal, governed by the law of nature, which dictates that no one ought to harm another in their life, health, liberty, or possessions. It is a state of reason, not necessarily a state of war.
How does Locke's view of government differ from Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan?
Locke differs from Hobbes primarily in his view of the state of nature and the purpose of government. While Hobbes saw the state of nature as a war of all against all, requiring an absolute sovereign, Locke believed it was governed by natural law and that government's role is to protect rights, not suppress them, allowing for resistance to tyranny.
What makes this revised edition of Two Treatises of Government significant?
This revised edition incorporates references to recent scholarship since the second edition, offering an updated understanding of Locke's work in light of contemporary academic discourse. It builds upon Dr. Laslett's authoritative original research, providing a more current and comprehensive scholarly resource.
Does Locke's theory of property ownership still hold relevance today?
Locke's theory that individuals gain property rights through mixing their labor with unowned resources remains a highly influential, though often debated, concept. It forms a basis for many arguments about individual ownership and economic rights, even as its limitations and implications are critically examined in modern contexts.
What practical implications did Locke's ideas have on the development of democratic societies?
Locke's ideas provided a philosophical blueprint for limited government, the right to revolution, and the protection of individual liberties. His work directly influenced the American and French Revolutions, shaping constitutional frameworks that prioritize popular sovereignty and individual rights.
Who was Dr. Laslett, and what was his contribution to this edition?
Dr. Laslett was a scholar whose 1960 edition of Two Treatises of Government became the standard. His meticulous analysis of Locke's papers provided the authoritative text and foundational scholarship. This revised edition updates his original work with new academic insights.
What is the significance of 'consent of the governed' in Locke's philosophy?
'Consent of the governed' is central to Locke's theory of legitimate government, meaning that political authority derives its just powers from the people it governs. This principle establishes that governments rule by permission, not by divine right or force, and can be overthrown if they betray that trust.
About the author
John Locke was an English philosopher and political theorist active in the 17th century. He is best known for his works on government and individual rights, particularly in "Two Treatises of Government" and "Second Treatise of Government," which laid foundational ideas for modern democracy and liberal thought.
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