Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre: Summary & Key Takeaways

Name: Being and Nothingness
ISBN: 9780415278485

Core Idea

Sartre's main work states that 'existence precedes essence,' meaning people are born without a set purpose or nature and must be free. This freedom makes individuals define themselves through their choices and actions, taking full responsibility for who they are and, by extension, for everyone. The book closely examines consciousness (the 'for-itself') as a lack, a way of negating being, always trying to match itself but always escaping definition. It contrasts this with the unmoving, self-identical 'in-itself.' Using this idea, Sartre looks at the anxiety that comes from absolute freedom, the ways people deceive themselves ('bad faith') to avoid this responsibility, and the strong effect of how people relate to each other, especially 'the gaze' of others, which can make a person's inner experience an object and show their fixed reality. In the end, 'Being and Nothingness' deeply explores human life, saying that we are always making ourselves through our goals, always reaching for a complete state that we never achieve. This highlights the constant change and freedom at the heart of human experience.

Difficulty: Hard
Read it if: You are a serious student of philosophy, particularly phenomenology and existentialism, and are prepared for a challenging, dense, and deeply influential exploration of human consciousness, freedom, and responsibility.
Skip it if: You prefer light reading, introductory philosophy, or are looking for practical self-help advice. This book is an academic text requiring significant intellectual effort.

Key Takeaways from Being and Nothingness

Existence Precedes Essence

We are condemned to be free, defining ourselves through our choices.

Sartre's main idea, 'existence precedes essence,' changes how we understand human nature. Unlike an object, which has a set purpose (e.g., a hammer is for hammering), humans are born without a fixed nature or purpose. We exist first, and only through our actions, choices, and projects do we create who we are. This means there is no built-in meaning or divine plan telling us who we are or what we should become. This absolute freedom is both exciting and scary, as it puts the full burden of making ourselves and taking responsibility directly on the individual. It means we are always changing, never fully defined until death, and that every decision adds to the ongoing story of who we are.

“Man is condemned to be free; because once thrown into the world, he is responsible for everything he does.”

In the book: This is the central thesis underpinning all of Sartre's work, elaborated through numerous examples of human behavior and consciousness. He contrasts human being (being-for-itself) with inanimate objects (being-in-itself) to illustrate this distinction.

Try this: Embrace the radical freedom of self-definition. Recognize that every choice, no matter how small, contributes to who you are becoming. Stop searching for an external purpose or prescribed identity and actively create your own meaning through engagement with the world. Take full responsibility for your actions and character, understanding that you are the sole author of your life's narrative.

Related ideas: radical-freedom, self-definition, human-condition

The Anguish of Freedom

Our absolute freedom evokes profound anxiety and responsibility.

Anguish, for Sartre, is not just fear but a specific kind of anxiety that comes from knowing our absolute freedom and the complete responsibility that comes with it. When we realize there are no existing values or outside authorities to guide our choices, and that we are solely responsible for creating our values through our actions, a deep sense of dread appears. This anguish is especially strong when thinking about a future choice, as we face endless possibilities and the weight of deciding not just our own being, but also, in a way, the values we put into the world. It is the feeling of 'being forced to be free,' where every decision is made without an outside safety net.

“Anguish is the reflective apprehension of freedom by itself.”

In the book: Sartre illustrates anguish through scenarios like standing on a precipice, where one feels not just fear of falling, but anguish over the freedom to jump; or the soldier who feels anguish not just over the fear of death, but over the freedom to desert or to fight heroically.

Try this: Instead of fleeing from anguish, recognize it as a signal of your authentic freedom. Use it as a catalyst for conscious and responsible decision-making. Understand that the discomfort of not having a predetermined path is precisely what allows you to forge your own, more meaningful existence. Embrace the weight of responsibility as an opportunity for genuine self-creation.

Related ideas: responsibility, dread, choice

Bad Faith and Self-Deception

Avoiding freedom by pretending to be an object or conforming to a role.

Bad faith (mauvaise foi) is Sartre's idea for self-deception, where people deny their absolute freedom and responsibility, often by pretending to be an object (being-in-itself) or by adopting a fixed social role as their entire identity. It is an attempt to escape the anguish of freedom by convincing oneself that one 'must' act a certain way due to circumstances, one's nature, or societal expectations, rather than freely choosing. Examples include the waiter who 'plays' at being a waiter, doing his role with too much precision, or the woman who pretends not to notice what a man's advances mean, avoiding the choice to accept or reject him. Bad faith is a basic dishonesty with oneself, an attempt to escape the burden of being a conscious, choosing person.

“The one who tries to pass off his being-for-itself as a being-in-itself is in bad faith.”

In the book: Sartre's famous examples include the café waiter, whose movements are 'too precise, too rapid,' embodying his role as if it were his essence; and the woman on a first date who leaves her hand in her suitor's, not acknowledging the gesture's meaning to avoid the choice of reciprocation or refusal.

Try this: Be vigilant against self-deception. Question any thoughts or feelings that suggest you 'have no choice' or 'must' act a certain way. Recognize when you are adopting a role (e.g., 'the good student,' 'the dutiful employee') as an excuse to avoid genuine self-definition. Consciously acknowledge your freedom in every situation, even those that feel constrained, and make choices from a place of authenticity, however uncomfortable that may be.

Related ideas: authenticity, self-deception, social-roles

The Gaze of the Other

Our self-perception is profoundly shaped and objectified by others' consciousness.

Sartre says that other people greatly affect who we are. When we meet another conscious mind, we become aware of being an object for that person, seen and judged from an outside view. This 'gaze of the Other' (le regard) can be deeply unsettling because it briefly takes away our inner freedom, fixing us as an object in their world. For example, if I am looking through a keyhole and suddenly hear footsteps, I realize I might be seen. In that moment, I am no longer just 'looking through a keyhole' but 'the one who is looking through a keyhole,' and I feel shame or embarrassment. This experience shows how easily we can be made into objects and the constant tension between our inner freedom and how we exist for others. It forms the basis of many disagreements and worries between people.

“The Other is first of all the Up-Surging of a Freedom.”

In the book: Sartre uses the example of a person peeping through a keyhole. When they hear footsteps and realize they might be seen, they instantly become aware of themselves as an object for another's gaze, feeling shame and realizing their freedom is being apprehended by another.

Try this: Recognize that being seen and judged by others is an inescapable part of human existence. While the gaze can be objectifying, it also offers a mirror through which we can become more aware of ourselves. Strive for authenticity in the face of others' perceptions, understanding that their gaze does not define your ultimate freedom. Use the awareness of how others see you to refine your self-understanding, rather than allowing it to dictate your being in bad faith.

Related ideas: objectification, intersubjectivity, shame

Facticity and Transcendence

We are a blend of our unchangeable past and our open-ended future.

Sartre defines human life as a constant tension between what is factual and what goes beyond it. What is factual refers to all the concrete, unchangeable truths of our existence: our past actions, our body, where we were born, our social setting, etc. These are the 'given' things we cannot change. What goes beyond, on the other hand, is our ability to see ourselves past our current situation, to define ourselves by our future possibilities and goals, and to always move past what is factual. We are always 'more' than our past or present situations. Bad faith often involves either denying what is factual (living in pure fantasy) or denying what goes beyond (claiming our past or circumstances completely define us). Authentic existence means accepting both: recognizing the unchangeable facts while actively creating our future through free choices.

“Man is a useless passion.”

In the book: Sartre discusses how a person's past crimes (facticity) are undeniable, yet that person still has the freedom to choose how they will live in the future (transcendence), to act differently or to accept responsibility. He also uses the example of a worker whose job is part of their facticity, but their projects and dreams go beyond it.

Try this: Acknowledge and accept your personal history and current circumstances (facticity) without letting them dictate your future entirely. Simultaneously, cultivate your capacity for transcendence by continuously envisioning new possibilities, setting goals, and making choices that propel you forward. Resist the urge to be defined solely by your past failures or successes, and always remember your capacity to choose and create anew.

Related ideas: past-present-future, self-overcoming, human-potential

The For-Itself and The In-Itself

Consciousness is a 'nothingness' that creates meaning in a world of inert objects.

Sartre separates two basic ways of being: the 'being-in-itself' (en-soi) and the 'being-for-itself' (pour-soi). The 'in-itself' refers to things, objects, inert matter that simply 'is' what it is, without consciousness, freedom, or potential. A rock, a tree, a table – they are complete, solid, and self-identical. The 'for-itself' refers to human consciousness. Unlike the in-itself, consciousness is marked by a basic 'lack' or 'nothingness.' It is always focused on something else, always looking to the future, always questioning and moving past its current state. It is 'what it is not' (its future possibilities) and 'is not what it is' (it moves past what is factual). This nothingness is the source of our freedom and our ability to create meaning in a world that, by itself, has none.

“Human reality is a being which is what it is not and which is not what it is.”

In the book: Sartre contrasts the stable, unchanging existence of a chair (in-itself) with the fluid, self-negating nature of human consciousness (for-itself), which is always becoming and always aware of what it is not.

Try this: Understand that your consciousness is not a thing, but an activity of 'nothingness' that continually creates meaning. Embrace this 'lack' as the source of your creativity and freedom. Avoid treating yourself or others as mere objects (in-itself); recognize the inherent subjectivity and potential of every conscious being. Actively engage in the process of meaning-making rather than passively accepting pre-existing meanings.

Related ideas: consciousness, ontology, meaning-making

Responsibility for All Humanity

Our choices define not only ourselves but also a vision of humanity.

While Sartre stresses individual freedom, he extends responsibility beyond the personal. When we make a choice, especially an important moral one, we are not just choosing for ourselves but are also defining what we believe humanity 'should' be. Our actions show a universal value. For instance, if I choose to marry, I am not just choosing marriage for myself but implicitly saying that marriage is a valid or good human institution. This idea raises the importance of every decision, making us aware of how our actions serve as an example. It means our freedom is not selfish; it carries a deep ethical weight, as we are always creating a model of humanity through our lived choices.

“In choosing myself, I choose man.”

In the book: Sartre discusses the example of a young man during WWII torn between staying to care for his ailing mother and joining the Resistance. Whichever he chooses, he is not just making a personal decision but affirming a value (family duty or national duty) that he believes is universally applicable.

Try this: Before making significant decisions, consider the broader implications. Ask yourself: 'If everyone acted as I am about to act, would that be a world I want to live in?' This thought experiment can help align your personal choices with a more universal ethical framework, fostering a deeper sense of responsibility not just for your own life, but for the kind of humanity you wish to see manifest in the world.

Related ideas: ethics, universal-values, moral-responsibility

Love as a Futile Project

Romantic love attempts to overcome objectification but ultimately fails.

Sartre sees romantic love as a basically impossible and eventually pointless effort, rooted in a wish to escape the natural conflict of how people relate to each other. The lover tries to own the freedom of the beloved, to be the absolute center of their world, and to overcome being made into an object by the Other's gaze. However, this is a contradiction: if the beloved truly gives up their freedom to the lover, they become an object, and the lover no longer wants them as a free conscious being. Conversely, if the beloved remains free, they keep their ability to make the lover an object, leading to a constant struggle for who is in control. This results in a continuous cycle of trying to own the Other's freedom, only to destroy the very thing one wants, making true, lasting, non-conflictual love impossible in Sartre's view. Love, therefore, becomes a 'useless feeling,' a goal set to fail.

“Love is a conflict.”

In the book: Sartre dissects the dynamics of seduction, desire, and the 'appeal' of the loved one, arguing that the desire is always to possess the other's freedom, which is inherently contradictory. He contrasts love with sadism and masochism, which are other attempts to resolve the subject-object dilemma.

Try this: Recognize the inherent challenges in romantic relationships, particularly the tension between individual freedom and the desire for connection. Acknowledge that you cannot truly 'possess' another's consciousness or freedom. Instead of trying to merge identities or control the other, strive for a relationship that respects individual autonomy and freedom, even if it means accepting a degree of existential solitude within the partnership. Focus on shared projects rather than attempting to overcome the fundamental separation of consciousnesses.

Related ideas: intersubjective-conflict, desire, relationship-dynamics

No Escape from Freedom

Even denial of freedom is an act of freedom.

Sartre's philosophy ends with the clear realization that there is no escape from our basic freedom. Even when we try to deny our freedom through bad faith, by pretending to be controlled by circumstances or a fixed nature, that very act of denial is itself a free choice. We choose to trick ourselves. This 'condemnation to be free' means that we are always responsible, always choosing, and always creating who we are, even when we try to give up that responsibility. There is no outside authority, no set path, and no 'human nature' that can serve as an excuse for our actions. This makes existence very challenging but also very empowering, as it means we are always able to redefine ourselves and our situation.

“We are left alone, without excuse.”

In the book: The entire framework of 'bad faith' serves as evidence that even the attempt to escape freedom is an act of freedom. The waiter who 'is' his role still chooses to embody that role; the woman who denies the meaning of a gesture still chooses to not acknowledge it.

Try this: Internalize the profound truth that you are always free and always responsible. Stop seeking excuses or blaming external factors for your choices and situation. Embrace the power that comes with this understanding: if you are always free, you always have the capacity to change, to choose differently, and to create a new future for yourself, regardless of your past or current circumstances. This realization should be a source of liberation, not despair.

Related ideas: autonomy, self-determination, existential-responsibility

Being and Nothingness Quotes

“Man is condemned to be free; because once thrown into the world, he is responsible for everything he does.”

Sartre's assertion of radical freedom and the burden of responsibility.

“Existence precedes essence.”

The fundamental tenet of existentialism, meaning we define ourselves through our choices and actions.

“The Other is the hidden god.”

Referring to the powerful influence of other people's gaze and judgment on our self-perception.

“Hell is other people.”

From the play 'No Exit,' illustrating the anguish of being defined and constrained by others' perceptions.

“Bad faith is a lie to oneself, not a lie to others.”

Describes the act of self-deception where one denies their radical freedom and responsibility.

“The being of human reality is a for-itself which is its own nothingness.”

A complex statement on human consciousness as a lack or a void, constantly creating itself.

“To be is to choose oneself.”

Emphasizes the active role of an individual in shaping their own being through continuous choices.

“Man is a useless passion.”

A somewhat pessimistic conclusion on the ultimate futility of human endeavors to achieve a 'for-itself-in-itself' state.

“We are left alone, without excuse.”

Highlights the isolation and lack of external justification for our choices in a world without inherent meaning.

“The look of the Other is a perpetual danger to my freedom.”

Explores how being perceived by others can objectify and limit one's sense of self and freedom.

“Nothingness lies coiled in the heart of being—like a worm.”

A vivid metaphor illustrating the inherent lack and possibility of negation within existence itself.

“Every human reality is a project which has its own being to be its own nothingness.”

Explains that human existence is a continuous striving, defined by what it is not yet, its future possibilities.

“Anguish is the reflective apprehension of freedom by itself.”

Describes anguish not as fear of punishment, but as the dizzying awareness of one's own absolute freedom and responsibility.

Quiz

10 questions on the main ideas. Each answer comes with a short explanation.

Question 1
According to Sartre in 'Being and Nothingness,' what is the fundamental characteristic that distinguishes 'being-for-itself' (pour-soi) from 'being-in-itself' (en-soi)?
1. Being-in-itself is conscious, while being-for-itself is not.
2. Being-for-itself is characterized by self-consciousness and nothingness, while being-in-itself is full and complete.
3. Both are aspects of the same unified reality, without fundamental distinction.
4. Being-in-itself possesses freedom, whereas being-for-itself is determined.
Show answer
B. Being-for-itself is characterized by self-consciousness and nothingness, while being-in-itself is full and complete. Sartre posits being-for-itself as conscious, characterized by an inherent lack or 'nothingness,' defining its freedom and transcendence. Being-in-itself, in contrast, is non-conscious, complete, and simply 'is' without internal negation.
Question 2
What does Sartre mean by 'Bad Faith' (mauvaise foi) in 'Being and Nothingness'?
1. The act of intentionally deceiving others for personal gain.
2. A sincere belief in a higher power despite a lack of evidence.
3. The self-deception by which one attempts to escape the anguish of freedom and responsibility by pretending to be an object or determined.
4. A philosophical skepticism regarding the existence of objective truth.
Show answer
C. The self-deception by which one attempts to escape the anguish of freedom and responsibility by pretending to be an object or determined. Bad Faith is Sartre's concept of self-deception, where an individual denies their radical freedom and responsibility by treating themselves as if they were a thing (en-soi) rather than a conscious subject (pour-soi).
Question 3
According to Sartre, what is the primary source of human anguish?
1. The fear of death and non-existence.
2. The recognition of one's absolute freedom and the total responsibility that comes with it.
3. The inherent meaninglessness of the universe.
4. The struggle against societal oppression and injustice.
Show answer
B. The recognition of one's absolute freedom and the total responsibility that comes with it. Sartre argues that anguish arises from the realization of our radical freedom – the fact that we are condemned to be free and are solely responsible for our choices, with no pre-given essence or values to guide us.
Question 4
Sartre argues that 'existence precedes essence.' What does this mean for human beings?
1. Humans are born with a predetermined nature that dictates their choices.
2. Humans first exist, and through their choices and actions, they define who they are.
3. The essence of humanity is a divine creation, prior to individual existence.
4. Our essence is determined by our genetic makeup and environmental factors.
Show answer
B. Humans first exist, and through their choices and actions, they define who they are. This central tenet of existentialism means that humans are born without a predefined purpose or nature (essence). We first exist, then, through our choices and actions, we create our own essence and define our own meaning.
Question 5
How does Sartre's concept of 'The Look' (le Regard) from 'Being and Nothingness' impact one's sense of self?
1. The Look confirms one's objective identity and purpose.
2. The Look is a neutral observation that has no effect on subjectivity.
3. The Look objectifies the self, revealing one's facticity and the possibility of being judged and defined by the Other.
4. The Look fosters a deeper sense of internal freedom and autonomy.
Show answer
C. The Look objectifies the self, revealing one's facticity and the possibility of being judged and defined by the Other. For Sartre, 'The Look' of the Other transforms one's subjective experience into an objective fact for that Other. This objectification brings a sense of shame or alienation, revealing one's facticity and the vulnerability of being defined by external perception, thus impacting our sense of self.
Question 6
Sartre critiques the idea of a fixed human nature. What is the implication of this critique for personal identity?
1. Personal identity is stable and unchanging from birth.
2. Personal identity is a constant project, continually being created and redefined through choices and actions.
3. Personal identity is an illusion, as there is no 'self' to identify.
4. Personal identity is solely determined by social roles and expectations.
Show answer
B. Personal identity is a constant project, continually being created and redefined through choices and actions. By rejecting a fixed human nature, Sartre emphasizes that personal identity is not given but is actively constructed. We are what we choose to be, and our identity is a continuous process of self-creation through our projects and commitments.
Question 7
How does Sartre distinguish between 'having' and 'being' in the context of human reality?
1. Having relates to the internal, subjective experience, while being relates to external possessions.
2. Having is a mode of being-in-itself (en-soi), where an object is possessed, while being is the dynamic, fluid nature of being-for-itself (pour-soi).
3. Sartre argues that 'having' is a more authentic mode of existence than 'being'.
4. There is no fundamental distinction; both terms describe the same human condition.
Show answer
B. Having is a mode of being-in-itself (en-soi), where an object is possessed, while being is the dynamic, fluid nature of being-for-itself (pour-soi). Sartre explores 'having' as a relationship of appropriation, where a conscious being relates to an object as an 'en-soi' that it 'has.' 'Being,' particularly 'being-for-itself,' is the dynamic, self-creating, and fundamentally free mode of consciousness itself, which cannot truly 'have' itself as an object.
Question 8
Sartre's concept of 'facticity' in 'Being and Nothingness' refers to what aspect of human existence?
1. The inherent freedom of consciousness to transcend any situation.
2. The unchangeable, given aspects of one's existence, such as birth, past, and physical body, that consciousness must assume.
3. The future possibilities and projects that define one's potential.
4. The collective unconscious shared by all humanity.
Show answer
B. The unchangeable, given aspects of one's existence, such as birth, past, and physical body, that consciousness must assume. Facticity refers to the concrete, unchangeable facts of our existence – our birth, our past, our physical body, our situation – which we did not choose but must nevertheless assume and integrate into our projects. It is the 'givenness' that our freedom must engage with.
Question 9
How does Sartre's analysis of 'desire' in 'Being and Nothingness' relate to the concept of 'lack' (manque)?
1. Desire is a drive to eliminate all forms of lack and achieve complete satisfaction, similar to a fulfilled being-in-itself.
2. Desire is fundamentally an attempt by the being-for-itself to appropriate the being-in-itself of the desired object, stemming from the for-itself's inherent lack of self-sufficiency.
3. Sartre argues that desire is a purely biological phenomenon, unrelated to existential lack.
4. Desire is an illusion that prevents the individual from recognizing their true freedom.
Show answer
B. Desire is fundamentally an attempt by the being-for-itself to appropriate the being-in-itself of the desired object, stemming from the for-itself's inherent lack of self-sufficiency. For Sartre, desire is rooted in the being-for-itself's fundamental 'lack' or 'nothingness.' The for-itself desires to be an 'en-soi-pour-soi' (a self-sufficient being-in-itself that is also conscious of itself), which is an impossible project. Desire is thus an attempt to fill this ontological lack by appropriating the being of the desired object.
Question 10
Sartre states that 'man is condemned to be free.' What is the ultimate consequence of this condemnation?
1. Humans are free to choose their actions, but their ultimate destiny is predetermined.
2. Humans are entirely responsible for their choices and actions, with no external or internal essence to appeal to for justification.
3. Freedom is an illusion, as all human actions are ultimately conditioned by external forces.
4. This condemnation leads to a state of perpetual happiness and self-fulfillment.
Show answer
B. Humans are entirely responsible for their choices and actions, with no external or internal essence to appeal to for justification. The condemnation to freedom means that humans are absolutely free and, therefore, absolutely responsible for everything they are and do. There is no God, no human nature, and no psychological determinism to blame or appeal to. We are the sole authors of our values and our being.

Being and Nothingness FAQ

What is the main idea behind Jean-Paul Sartre's Being and Nothingness?

Being and Nothingness explores the nature of human existence, consciousness, and freedom. Sartre argues that humans are condemned to be free, meaning we are solely responsible for creating our own essence and meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.

What is 'bad faith' according to Sartre?

Bad faith is a form of self-deception where individuals deny their radical freedom and responsibility by pretending to be an object or conforming to pre-defined roles. It's an attempt to escape the anguish of choice by adopting external identities.

Does existentialism, as presented in the book, advocate for nihilism?

No, while Sartre acknowledges the absence of inherent meaning in the universe, he does not advocate for nihilism. Instead, he emphasizes that this lack of pre-ordained meaning empowers individuals to create their own values and purpose through their choices and actions.

How does Being and Nothingness differ from earlier philosophical works on consciousness?

Sartre's work distinguishes itself by emphasizing the ontological primacy of consciousness as 'nothingness' or 'for-itself,' distinct from the 'in-itself' of objects. Unlike many earlier philosophies, it foregrounds radical freedom and the anguish of choice as central to human experience.

What is the significance of 'the look' (le regard) in Sartre's philosophy?

The look signifies the moment an individual becomes aware of being an object for another's consciousness. This experience can induce shame and a loss of subjective freedom, revealing the complex intersubjective nature of human existence.

How can one apply the concepts of Being and Nothingness to everyday life?

Applying Sartre's concepts involves recognizing your fundamental freedom and responsibility for your choices, even in difficult situations. It encourages authentic living, confronting anxiety, and resisting the temptation to fall into 'bad faith' by blaming external circumstances.

What is the difference between 'being-in-itself' and 'being-for-itself'?

Being-in-itself refers to things that simply exist, like objects, without consciousness or self-awareness. Being-for-itself refers to human consciousness, which is characterized by self-awareness, freedom, and the ability to transcend its present state.

Is Being and Nothingness a psychology book or a philosophy book?

While it delves deeply into human experience and consciousness, making it relevant to psychology, Being and Nothingness is fundamentally a work of philosophy. It explores ontological questions about the nature of being, existence, and freedom, rather than empirical studies of the mind.

How does Sartre's concept of freedom differ from traditional notions of free will?

Sartre's freedom is more radical; it's not just the ability to choose, but the inherent condition of human existence. We are 'condemned to be free' because we are always choosing and are fully responsible for our being, even in circumstances beyond our control, which differs from simply having options.

About the author

Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic, considered a leading figure in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. Sartre was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism. His work has influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to do so. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature despite attempting to refuse it, saying that he always declined official honors and that "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution."

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