Synopsis
Covers the whole plot, including the ending.
- Difficulty
- Medium
- Pacing
- Slow
- Mood
- Melancholy, Reflective, Observing, Disillusioned
- Read it if
- You are interested in post-colonial themes, philosophical reflections on identity and belonging, and a deep exploration of a changing society.
- Skip it if
- You prefer fast-paced plots with clear resolutions and optimistic outcomes.
A Bend in the River Plot Summary
Covers the whole plot, including the ending.
Salim's Departure and Arrival at the Bend
Salim, a young man of Indian descent from a long-established trading family on the East African coast, decides to leave his familiar but unchanging community. He feels drawn to the continent's interior, a place he thinks holds more promise and less rigid tradition. He travels by steamer up a large river to a small, isolated town at a bend. This former colonial outpost is now part of an unnamed, newly independent African nation. He buys a small shop from a departing European, planning to sell various goods to the local people. The town is shown as a place of decay and uncertainty, still showing its colonial past and dealing with the new, often chaotic, realities of post-independence rule. Salim is initially hopeful, seeing the town as a fresh start for his plans.
Establishing the Shop and Observing the Town
Salim begins his business, selling everyday provisions, household items, and some luxuries. He observes the town's people: the local Africans, the remaining Europeans, and other immigrant traders. He notices the widespread poverty, the slowly crumbling remnants of colonial buildings, and the uneasy relationship between different tribal groups. He befriends Metty, an older African woman who helps him at home, and Indar, a successful Indian trader who has moved to the capital. Salim also meets Father Huismans, a European priest interested in local masks, and Big Man, the charismatic leader of the new nation, whose image and words are everywhere. The town feels like it is waiting, with subtle tension and political instability underneath.
The Arrival of Ferdinand and Salim's Friendship
Salim meets Ferdinand, a bright, ambitious young African man who is the son of Zabeth, a once-powerful local woman. Ferdinand first works for Salim, but his intelligence and drive are clear. Salim becomes a mentor to Ferdinand, encouraging his education and offering advice. Their friendship crosses racial and cultural lines, giving Salim more insight into the local community and the hopes of the younger generation. Ferdinand represents the hope and potential of the new Africa, but also the challenges faced by those caught between old ways and modern goals. Salim watches Ferdinand struggle to balance his tribal background with the new national identity Big Man is creating.
The Capital and Yvette's Influence
Salim travels to the capital city, a sprawling, chaotic place where power is concentrated. He stays with Indar, who has become a successful academic, navigating the complexities of the new government. Through Indar, Salim meets Raymond, a French academic and former colonial official, and his beautiful wife, Yvette. Salim is attracted to Yvette, and they start a secret, passionate affair. This relationship is a departure from Salim's reserved nature and shows him a different world of European sophistication and unclear morals. The affair is turbulent and ultimately unfulfilling, reflecting the wider unease and rootlessness that affects many characters in the post-colonial setting.
Political Instability and the Youth Guard
Back at the bend in the river, the political situation becomes more unstable. Big Man's government tightens its control, and the 'Youth Guard,' a paramilitary group, acts as a tool of control and fear. They patrol the town, enforce rules, and create fear. The local currency loses value, businesses struggle, and uncertainty becomes normal. Salim sees the arbitrary nature of power and the loss of individual freedoms. The once-quiet town becomes a place of high tension, where suspicion and watching are constant. The economic hardship forces many to adapt or suffer, and Salim finds himself increasingly at risk.
The Demolition of the Domain and Father Huismans' Fate
Big Man's government begins a project to 'Africanize' the country, which includes destroying colonial symbols. The 'Domain,' a European-built compound meant to be a modern educational institution, is torn down. Its materials are reused or left to rot. This act shows the rejection of the past and the often-destructive nature of the new order. At the same time, Father Huismans, the priest who collected masks, is found murdered, likely by local thugs or the Youth Guard. His collection is stolen. His death shows the lawlessness and violence that have become common, and the disregard for both foreign presence and cultural heritage in the chaotic change.
Salim's Journey to London and Return
Overwhelmed by the instability and personal problems, Salim decides to leave the country and travels to London. He stays with Indar, who has now fully adopted a Western lifestyle, leaving behind his African identity. Salim finds London to be an alienating city where he feels even more disconnected than in Africa. He struggles to find a sense of belonging or purpose. The experience in London highlights his deep rootlessness. Despite the chaos at the bend, Salim realizes his place, however uncertain, is there. He eventually decides to return, having found no comfort or future in the West, understanding that his fate is tied to the uncertain future of the African continent.
Reopening the Shop and Renewed Uncertainty
Upon his return, Salim finds the town even more changed. The political oppression has grown, and economic conditions have worsened significantly. He manages to reopen his shop, but business is hard. Goods are scarce, and the Youth Guard's presence is more widespread and threatening. Salim observes the deeper despair among the local people. He reconnects with Ferdinand, who has risen in the government, but their friendship is now strained by Ferdinand's involvement in the system that oppresses Salim. The future of the town and its people seems increasingly bleak, controlled by fear and the whims of Big Man's government.
The Seizure of Salim's Shop and Departure
The government's 'Africanization' policies reach a peak when Salim's shop, along with other foreign-owned businesses, is officially taken by the state. This act leaves Salim without money or a way to make a living. He is given a short time to leave the country. With Ferdinand's help, who, despite his position, still has some loyalty to Salim, he gets passage out of the country on a steamer. Salim's departure is sudden and forced, the result of the political and economic collapse that has taken over the nation. He leaves the bend in the river, his initial hopes gone, a refugee of the forces he had tried to understand.
A Bend in the River Characters
Salim
Protagonist
A young Indian merchant seeking a new life in post-colonial Africa.
Salim is the introspective narrator and protagonist of the novel. Of Indian descent, he grows up on the East African coast but feels disconnected from his family's traditional trading life. He seeks to forge his own path in the interior, drawn by a vague sense of opportunity and a desire to escape stagnation. He is an observer, often passive, yet deeply reflective about the social and political changes around him. He struggles with his identity, feeling neither fully African nor truly connected to his Indian heritage. His relationships, particularly with Yvette and Ferdinand, highlight his yearning for connection and understanding amidst the chaos.
Relationships: Metty (domestic helper and confidante); Indar (childhood friend and intellectual acquaintance); Ferdinand (mentee and complex friend); Yvette (lover)
Ferdinand
Supporting
A bright young African man navigating the new political landscape.
Ferdinand is a local African boy, son of Zabeth, who initially works for Salim. He is intelligent, ambitious, and represents the potential and the contradictions of the new generation in post-colonial Africa. He is caught between his tribal traditions and the allure of modern education and power. His journey from a humble background to a position within Big Man's regime reflects the opportunities and moral compromises available to those who embrace the new order. He maintains a complex loyalty to Salim, often helping him despite their differing positions, illustrating the enduring human connections amidst political upheaval.
Relationships: Salim (mentee, then complex friend); Zabeth (mother)
Big Man
Antagonist
The authoritarian leader of the unnamed African nation.
Big Man is the unseen but omnipresent authoritarian leader of the country. He is a charismatic, ruthless figure who embodies the post-colonial dictator. His pronouncements, image, and policies dominate every aspect of life in the town and the capital. He champions 'Africanization' and Pan-Africanism, often through destructive and violent means, leading to the economic collapse and political oppression that define the narrative. He represents the failure of the post-independence dream and the cyclical nature of power and exploitation.
Yvette
Supporting
The beautiful, unhappily married wife of Raymond, with whom Salim has an affair.
Yvette is the French wife of Raymond, a European intellectual. She is beautiful, sophisticated, and deeply unhappy, trapped in a loveless marriage and a life of ennui in the capital. Her affair with Salim is passionate but ultimately destructive, mirroring the broader sense of disillusionment and the search for meaning in a world without clear values. She represents a certain European decadence and emotional rootlessness, and her relationship with Salim highlights his own vulnerability and his exposure to worlds beyond his previous experience.
Indar
Supporting
Salim's childhood friend, who becomes a successful intellectual in the capital and later in London.
Indar is Salim's childhood friend from the coast. Unlike Salim, Indar is highly ambitious and intellectually driven. He successfully navigates the new political landscape, first as an academic in the capital and later as a successful, Westernized intellectual in London. He embodies a certain type of adaptability and detachment, shedding his African identity to embrace a global, cosmopolitan existence. He serves as a foil to Salim, showing a different path for immigrants in a changing world, one that involves abandoning roots for perceived opportunities.
Relationships: Salim (childhood friend and occasional host)
Metty
Supporting
An older African woman who works for Salim and provides a link to local life.
Metty is an older African woman who helps Salim with his household chores and provides companionship. She is pragmatic, resilient, and deeply connected to the local traditions and community. She offers Salim a glimpse into the everyday lives and struggles of the indigenous people, acting as a grounding presence amidst the turmoil. Her quiet dignity and practical wisdom contrast with the grand, often destructive, political narratives unfolding around them. She represents the enduring spirit of the local population.
Relationships: Salim (employer and domestic helper)
Father Huismans
Supporting
A European priest fascinated by local African masks.
Father Huismans is an elderly European priest living in the town. He is an intellectual and a collector, deeply absorbed in the study and acquisition of local African masks, which he sees as embodying the region's spiritual and cultural heritage. His passion for the masks, however, is detached and academic, reflecting a European gaze on African culture. His brutal murder and the theft of his collection symbolize the destruction of both colonial remnants and the indigenous culture he sought to preserve, highlighting the violence and cultural loss inherent in the post-independence chaos.
Relationships: Salim (acquaintance)
Zabeth
Supporting
Ferdinand's powerful and traditional mother.
Zabeth is Ferdinand's mother, a formidable and traditional local woman who commands respect within her community. She is fiercely protective of her son and represents the enduring strength of tribal customs and family ties. Her efforts to ensure Ferdinand's education and success, often through traditional means, highlight the clash between old and new ways in the changing society. She serves as a symbol of the deep-rooted African identity that persists despite the efforts of Big Man's regime to forge a new national consciousness.
Relationships: Ferdinand (son)
Raymond
Mentioned
Yvette's husband, a French academic and former colonial official.
Raymond is Yvette's husband, a French academic who once held a position in the colonial administration. He is a disillusioned intellectual, still attempting to make sense of the new Africa through his writings, but largely detached from its realities. His intellectualizing often seems futile against the backdrop of the country's chaos. He represents the lingering European presence and its struggle to understand or influence the post-colonial world.
A Bend in the River Themes
Identity and Rootlessness
The novel explores identity, especially for those between cultures. Salim, of Indian descent in Africa, feels constantly without a home, neither fully African nor truly Indian. His journey to the interior and then to London only increases this feeling. Characters like Indar choose to leave their African identity for Western life, while Ferdinand struggles to balance his tribal background with the new national identity. The collapse of colonial structures leaves a gap, forcing individuals to redefine themselves in a chaotic, often violent, new world. Old identities are challenged, and new ones are forced, often leaving people without a true home.
“The world is what it is; men who are nothing, who allow themselves to become nothing, have no place in it.”
The Failure of Post-Colonialism
Naipaul shows the disappointment after African independence. Initial hopes for self-rule and progress give way to corruption, authoritarianism, and economic collapse under Big Man's government. The 'Africanization' policies lead to destruction (like the demolition of the Domain) instead of real development. Rule of law is replaced by arbitrary power and violence, seen in the Youth Guard. The novel suggests that independence, rather than bringing freedom, simply exchanged one type of oppression for another, leaving the people in fear, poverty, and constant uncertainty. The 'bend in the river' shows a continent struggling with its own problems.
“The new independence was like a great excitement, but it was just like the excitement of a slave who has been given a new master.”
The Nature of Power and Violence
Power in 'A Bend in the River' is shown as arbitrary, corrupting, and violent. Big Man's government uses fear, propaganda, and brutal enforcement by groups like the Youth Guard. The violence is not always open warfare but a widespread atmosphere of intimidation, theft, and disregard for human life, as seen in Father Huismans's murder. This theme explores how power, once taken, controls, exploits, and destroys, leading to a breakdown of social order and a pervasive sense of insecurity. The novel shows how individuals, from Salim to Ferdinand, must navigate or give in to these forces of power and violence to survive.
“The bush was full of spirits, and the spirits were the spirits of the dead. They were the spirits of the people who had been killed, and they were the spirits of the people who had died of hunger and disease.”
Cultural Clash and Decay
The novel explores the clash and decay of various cultures—local African traditions, the remnants of European colonialism, and the Indian trading culture. The town at the bend is where these cultures clash, exist uneasily, and eventually fall apart. Colonial buildings crumble, traditional masks are stolen or destroyed, and the 'Africanization' movement often means getting rid of anything not considered 'African,' even if it is a vital part of the country's makeup. This cultural decay adds to the overall sense of loss, confusion, and the struggle to create a clear national identity among the ruins of the past and the uncertainties of the present.
“The past was not a country to return to. It was a place where things had happened, and they had happened irrevocably.”
Plot Devices & Literary Techniques
First-Person Narration (Salim's Perspective)
Provides an intimate, subjective lens on post-colonial Africa.
The entire story is narrated by Salim, offering a deeply personal and often detached perspective on the events unfolding around him. His observations are filtered through his unique position as an outsider, an Indian in an African country, which allows him to critically examine both African society and the lingering European influence. This subjective lens heightens the sense of alienation and uncertainty, as the reader experiences the chaos and decay through Salim's often bewildered and disillusioned eyes. His internal monologues and reflections are central to understanding the novel's themes of identity and rootlessness.
The 'Bend in the River' as Microcosm
The setting symbolizes the broader state of post-colonial Africa.
The town at the 'bend in the river' functions as a powerful symbol and a microcosm for the larger post-colonial African continent. Its isolation, decay, and constant state of flux – from colonial outpost to independent nation under authoritarian rule – reflect the broader political and social upheavals of the time. The river itself represents both a path to opportunity and a conduit for the flow of chaos and change. The specific events and characters within this small town mirror the grander failures and struggles of the new nations, making the local universal.
Symbolism of Objects (e.g., Masks, Domain)
Material objects represent cultural heritage, destruction, and aspiration.
Throughout the novel, specific objects carry significant symbolic weight. Father Huismans's collection of African masks represents a vanishing cultural heritage and the European gaze upon it; their theft and his murder signify the destruction of both. The 'Domain,' a grand, decaying European-built compound, symbolizes the failed aspirations of colonialism and the destructive, often misguided, efforts of the new regime to erase the past. These objects are not merely props but encapsulate the larger themes of cultural clash, decay, and the loss of identity in the changing landscape.
Big Man's Invisible Presence
The leader's unseen but pervasive influence generates fear and uncertainty.
Big Man, the country's authoritarian leader, never appears directly in the novel, yet his presence is felt everywhere through his omnipresent portraits, pronouncements, and the actions of his regime (like the Youth Guard and nationalization policies). This unseen but all-encompassing power creates a constant atmosphere of fear, paranoia, and uncertainty. His invisibility makes him seem larger than life, an almost mythical figure whose whims dictate the fate of the nation and its inhabitants, effectively symbolizing the arbitrary and absolute nature of totalitarian rule.
A Bend in the River Quotes
“The world is what it is; men who are nothing, who allow themselves to become nothing, have no place in it.”
“Every man has to make his own living, and if he doesn't, he's just a parasite.”
“History was a story, and you could make it up as you went along.”
“The river was still there, but it was not the same river. Nothing was the same.”
“Africa was not a place where you could be simple. It was a place where you had to be complicated.”
“He understood that he was living in a place that had no future, only a past that was being erased.”
“All that was certain was the present, and even that was a kind of illusion.”
“The forest was not a place of beauty, but a place of terror and decay.”
“Every new thing was old, and every old thing was new, depending on how you looked at it.”
“To be a man was to be responsible for yourself, and for nothing else.”
“The world was full of people who were pretending to be something they were not.”
“He felt like a man who had come to the end of a long journey, only to find that there was no destination.”
“The past was not something that was over and done with. It was always there, waiting.”
“Nothing was ever truly owned. Everything was just borrowed for a while.”
Quiz
10 questions on the plot and the characters. Each answer comes with a short explanation.
Question 1
What is the name of the protagonist who moves to the unnamed country in the heart of Africa?
- Indar
- Salim
- Ferdinand
- Raymond
Show answer
B. Salim The protagonist of 'A Bend in the River' is Salim, who leaves the east coast of Africa to start a new life in the interior.
Question 2
Where does Salim initially settle to build his new life?
- A bustling capital city
- A remote village by the ocean
- A sleepy town at a bend in the river
- A newly established agricultural commune
Show answer
C. A sleepy town at a bend in the river Salim buys a small shop in a sleepy town located at a bend in the river, which becomes the central setting and metaphor for the book.
Question 3
What kind of business does Salim establish in his new town?
- A tailoring shop
- A hardware store
- A general store selling sundries
- A restaurant
Show answer
C. A general store selling sundries Salim opens a small shop where he sells various sundries to the local population, adapting to the needs of the isolated community.
Question 4
The book primarily explores Africa during which historical period?
- Pre-colonial era
- The height of European colonization
- The immediate post-colonial period at the time of Independence
- Modern globalized Africa
Show answer
C. The immediate post-colonial period at the time of Independence The novel is set during the immediate post-colonial period, exploring the chaos and change that followed African nations gaining independence.
Question 5
Which of these themes is NOT explicitly highlighted as central to the book's exploration of post-colonial Africa?
- Social breakdown
- Technological advancement and globalization
- Ignorance and isolation
- Historical upheaval and violent change
Show answer
B. Technological advancement and globalization While the book touches on many aspects of post-colonial life, technological advancement and globalization are not central themes; instead, it focuses on the struggles of a changing, often chaotic, and isolated world.
Question 6
What does the 'bend in the river' metaphorically represent in the novel?
- A place of peace and unchanging tradition
- A microcosm of the changing world of post-colonial Africa
- The protagonist's personal journey of self-discovery
- The unchanging nature of the African landscape
Show answer
B. A microcosm of the changing world of post-colonial Africa The description explicitly states that the bend in the river serves as 'a microcosm of this changing world,' reflecting the larger chaos and upheaval of post-colonial Africa.
Question 7
Salim's initial motivation for moving to the unnamed country is described as fulfilling his duty as what?
- A religious scholar
- A dutiful son
- A man
- A political activist
Show answer
C. A man The book states Salim believes he is moving 'to fulfil his duty as a man,' suggesting a personal quest for independence and establishment.
Question 8
How does the novel portray the political and social environment of the unnamed country?
- Stable and prosperous, with a focus on national unity
- Characterized by chaos, violent change, warring tribes, and poverty
- Undergoing a peaceful transition to a democratic government
- Largely unaffected by the broader changes in post-colonial Africa
Show answer
B. Characterized by chaos, violent change, warring tribes, and poverty The summary explicitly describes the setting as 'a scene of chaos, violent change, warring tribes, ignorance, isolation and poverty,' painting a picture of profound instability.
Question 9
V. S. Naipaul is known for his exploration of themes related to post-colonialism, displacement, and identity. How does 'A Bend in the River' specifically contribute to these themes?
- By focusing solely on the resilience of indigenous cultures against external influence.
- By portraying a protagonist who successfully integrates into a stable, newly independent nation.
- By using Salim's journey and observations to depict the struggles, disillusionment, and search for meaning in a disintegrating post-colonial society.
- By celebrating the immediate economic boom and political stability following independence.
Show answer
C. By using Salim's journey and observations to depict the struggles, disillusionment, and search for meaning in a disintegrating post-colonial society. The novel uses Salim's experiences to illustrate the difficulties, social breakdown, and search for identity in a country grappling with the aftermath of colonialism, rather than presenting an optimistic view.
Question 10
Which aspect of Salim's background on the east coast of Africa is highlighted as significant before his move inland?
- His extensive formal education and political activism.
- His life spent living and working with his family.
- His experience as a seasoned explorer and adventurer.
- His privileged upbringing in a wealthy European enclave.
Show answer
B. His life spent living and working with his family. The text states Salim 'has spent most of his life on the east coast of Africa, living and working with his family,' indicating a background rooted in communal and familial ties before his individual journey.
A Bend in the River FAQ
What is A Bend in the River about?
A Bend in the River follows Salim, an East African Indian, as he leaves his ancestral home on the coast to start a new life in a small, unnamed town at a bend in a river in the interior of a newly independent African nation. The novel chronicles his attempts to establish a business and find his place amidst the political turmoil, social decay, and cultural clashes of post-colonial Africa.
Why should I read A Bend in the River?
You should read A Bend in the River for its profound and unflinching portrayal of post-colonial Africa, offering a deep insight into the complexities of identity, displacement, and the struggle for meaning in a society undergoing rapid and often violent change. Naipaul's prose is meticulously observed, creating a vivid, unsettling atmosphere that stays with the reader.
What is the background/setting of A Bend in the River?
The novel is set in an unnamed, fictional country in the heart of Africa, likely inspired by Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo), during the tumultuous period of decolonization and the immediate aftermath of independence in the mid-20th century. The 'bend in the river' town serves as a microcosm of the wider continent's struggles with tribalism, corruption, and the legacy of colonialism.
What writing style does the author use?
V.S. Naipaul employs a precise, often detached and analytical prose style, characterized by its keen observational detail and psychological depth. His narration, primarily through Salim's perspective, is often cynical and reflective, creating a sense of alienation and disillusionment that mirrors the protagonist's experiences and the novel's themes.
What minor details add significant meaning?
The recurring motif of the 'Big Man' and his shifting portraits across the town's public spaces subtly illustrates the instability of power and the cult of personality in the new regime. Also, the dilapidated European statues and abandoned colonial buildings constantly remind Salim and the reader of the fleeting nature of foreign influence and the decay of past eras.
What are some subtle foreshadowing moments?
The early descriptions of the town's stagnation and the villagers' reliance on Salim's shop, coupled with the increasing political rhetoric from the 'Big Man's' regime, subtly foreshadow the eventual nationalization of businesses and the erosion of individual enterprise. Additionally, the constant threat of 'youths' and the arbitrary violence hint at the broader societal breakdown to come.
What unexpected character connections exist?
One unexpected connection is Salim's relationship with Indar, a fellow East African Indian who initially represents an escape from the 'bend in the river' to a more sophisticated, Westernized existence. Indar's eventual disillusionment and return to Africa, albeit in a different capacity, reveal the inescapable pull of their shared heritage and the limitations of escaping one's roots.
What are unspoken character motivations?
Salim's unspoken motivation for moving to the bend in the river is not just to 'fulfil his duty as a man,' but also a deeper, almost subconscious desire to define himself outside his family's traditional expectations and to escape the perceived stagnation of his ancestral home, even if it means venturing into an unknown, volatile future.
What psychological complexities do characters exhibit?
Salim exhibits a profound psychological complexity, grappling with his identity as an outsider – neither fully African nor truly Indian in the new context. He experiences a constant tension between his desire for stability and his intellectual detachment from the chaos around him, leading to a sense of alienation and moral ambiguity.
What are the major emotional turning points?
A major emotional turning point for Salim is the disillusionment he feels after his brief, hopeful sojourn in London, realizing that 'home' is a complex, elusive concept and that he cannot truly escape his African reality. Another is his encounter with Ferdinand, which, despite their differing backgrounds, offers a fleeting moment of shared understanding amidst the general mistrust.
How do relationship dynamics evolve?
Relationship dynamics evolve from initial curiosity and tentative alliances, like Salim's with Yvette, to increasing mistrust and transactional interactions driven by survival. The bond between Salim and Ferdinand, initially hierarchical, transforms into a more complex, almost fraternal connection, reflecting their shared struggle to navigate a disintegrating society.
Which parts remain ambiguous or open-ended?
The ultimate fate of the unnamed country and its people remains ambiguous, as Naipaul focuses on the cyclical nature of its struggles rather than a definitive resolution. Salim's own future, after he decides to leave, is also left open-ended, suggesting that his journey for identity and belonging is continuous and perhaps never fully resolved.
What are controversial scenes or decisions?
Salim's affair with Yvette, the wife of his mentor Raymond, is a controversial aspect, highlighting his moral compromises and the blurred lines of loyalty in a society where traditional values are eroding. His decision to ultimately abandon the 'bend in the river' can also be seen as controversial, reflecting a personal retreat from collective struggle.
A Bend in the River ending explained: how it ends & what it means
The novel ends with Salim deciding to leave the bend in the river after the political situation deteriorates further, marked by increased violence and the nationalization of businesses. He boards a boat, heading downriver, symbolizing his departure from the chaos and his return to a more uncertain future, reflecting the cyclical nature of upheaval and the individual's struggle to find stability amidst it.
About the author
Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul was a Trinidadian-born British writer of works of fiction and nonfiction in English. He is known for his comic early novels set in Trinidad, his bleaker novels of alienation in the wider world, and his vigilant chronicles of life and travels. He wrote in prose that was widely admired, but his views sometimes aroused controversy. He published more than thirty books over fifty years.
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